ID,Language,Wordclass,Subclass,Notes,Change type,Cells changed,Image before,Image after,Previous,Reference
"helen_m112","Serbo-Croatian","noun","None","In the dialect of Paraćinsko Pomoravlje (a Kosovo-Resava dialect of Eastern Serbia), accusative case forms have replaced genitives in a variety of contexts, including the following: a) adnominal genitive: ćoše livade (G) > ćoše livadu (A) 'corner of a meadow'; b) temporal genitive: ove (G) godine (G) > ovu (A) godinu (A);  literary: 'in this year'; c) complements of predicate adjectives:  pun vode (G) > pun vodu (A) ('full of water'); literary: 'full with water'); d) with verbs imati (in the existential meaning: 'to be')  and nemati ('not to be'): nije bilo vode (G)  > nije bilo vodu (A); 'there was no water'; e) Quantifier and partitive expressions: jedno parće ribe (G) > jedno parće ribu (A) 'one piece of fish'. ","replacement","(case:genitive)","Kosovo-Resava dialects","Kosovo-Resava dialects acc replaces gen","helen_m44","Miloradović 2003"
"helen_m110","English","pronoun","None","The distinction between the singular and plural forms of the second person pronoun developed something like a T/V contrast in Middle English, perhaps partly due to the influence of French.","Mixed","","ME pronouns 2nd person","ME pronouns 2nd person II","helen_m102","Lass 1992"
"helen_m111","English","pronoun","None","Standard English has lost number distinctions in the second person pronoun, alongside verbal agreement. This was pragmatically motivated: the second person singular and plural developed something like a T/V distinction in ME, possibly originally under the influence of French, and the V form came to be used universally in many forms of the language.","replacement","(number:singular politeness:familiar)","ME pronouns 2nd person II","ME pronouns 2nd person III","helen_m110","Lass 1992"
"helen_m116","Serbo-Croatian","noun","None","In the dialect of Paraćinsko Pomoravlje (a Kosovo-Resava dialect of Eastern Serbia), genitive, instrumental, locative and dative case forms are replaced by accusatives in a number of prepositional constructions, E.g.: sa ćerkom (Instr)  > sa ćerku (Acc) 'with the daughter'; živeli u gradu (Loc) > živeli u grad (Acc) 'lived in a town'.","replacement","(case:genitive)(case:instrumental)(case:locative)(case:dative)","Kosovo-Resava dialects","Kosovo-Resava dialects acc replaces gen, inst, loc, dat in prepositional constructions","helen_m44","Miloradović 2003"
"helen_m117","Serbo-Croatian","noun","None","In Kosovo-Resava dialects, the dative case, which marks the direction or goal of movement, is occasionally extended to marking a location, ousting the more conservative construction with the preposition o + locative case (e.g. ona bila kući (dat), 'she was in the house'). With place names, the preposition ka 'to' + dative may also be extended to location marking.","replacement","(case:locative)","Kosovo-Resava dialects","Kosovo-Resava dialects dat replaces loc","helen_m44","Miloradović 2003"
"helen_m114","Serbo-Croatian","noun","None","In the dialect of Paraćinsko Pomoravlje (a Kosovo-Resava dialect of Eastern Serbia), nominative case forms may replace genitives in certain constructions: a) With verbs imati (here in the existential meaning: 'to be'), nemati ('not to be'): nema ga ćovek (N) 'there is no man/person '; b) With the verb biti ('to be'): (nije) bilo gasa (G) > (nije) bilo gas (N); 'there was (no) gas'); c) Occasionally in temporal expressions: ove (G) godine (G) > ova (N) godina (N) (lit.: 'in this year'); d) Quantitative (but not numeric) expressions: dva hektara zemlje (G) > dva hektara zemlja (N) ('two acres of land')","replacement","(case:genitive)","Kosovo-Resava dialects","Kosovo-Resava dialects nom replaces gen","helen_m44","Miloradović 2003"
"helen_m115","Serbo-Croatian","noun","None","In the dialect of Paraćinsko Pomoravlje (a Kosovo-Resava dialect of Eastern Serbia), genitive, instrumental and accusative case forms are sometimes reinforced with prepositions, e.g. pazite se visine > pazite se ot visine, 'beware of the height'.","Mixed","","Kosovo-Resava dialects","Kosovo-Resava dialects","helen_m44","Miloradović 2003"
"helen_m118","Serbo-Croatian","noun","None","In Kosovo-Resava dialects, the dative case in its function of marking the direction or goal of movement is often replaced by a construction using the preposition kod 'near/by' with the genitive or accusative case (e.g. došo kod mosta (gen)/most (acc), 'came to the bridge').","loss","(case:dative)","Kosovo-Resava dialects","Kosovo-Resava dialects prepositional construction replaces dat","helen_m44","Miloradović 2003"
"helen_m119","Serbo-Croatian","noun","None","In Kosovo-Resava dialects, dative case forms replace genitives as markers of adnominal possession.","replacement","(case:genitive)","Kosovo-Resava dialects","Kosovo-Resava dialects dat replaces gen","helen_m44","Miloradović 2003"
"helen_m219","Scottish Gaelic","noun","None","In Scottish Gaelic, plural forms have normally replaced duals, except after numerals, where the singular forms are usually used.","replacement","(number:dual)(number:plural)","three number values","Gaelic number normal pattern","None","Nurmio & Willis 2017"
"helen_m181","Proto-Germanic","verb","None","In the development from Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Germanic, the subjunctive merged functionally with the present indicative. Usually this merger was in favour of the indicative forms, except for a few verbs, where the former subjunctive ousted the indicative instead (particularly verbs whose present forms in other IE languages reflect derived imperfectives with the suffix *sk or a nasal infix). Proto-Germanic retained a distinction between indicative and subjunctive mood, but the subjunctive formally continued the PIE optative, and probably spanned the functional range of both the PIE optative and subjunctive.","replacement","(mood:subjunctive)","PIE mood mergers","PGmc mood mergers","None","Ringe 2006"
"helen_m49","Bulgarian & Macedonian","noun","None","The dative tended to replace the genitive in adnominal constructions (already possible in OCS), while the oblique tended to replace it in other contexts (verbal complements, prepositional uses). In modern Balkan Slavic the pronominal dative is used to express possession. (For animate masculine nouns, the genitive singular also doubled as an accusative – this use survived longer).","replacement","(case:genitive)","Balkan slavic loss of locative","Balkan slavic loss of genitive","helen_m48","Wahlström 2015"
"helen_m48","Bulgarian & Macedonian","noun","None","In Old Church Slavonic the locative is used almost exclusively with prepositions denoting goal or location, and with a few verbs with the prefix pri-. In early manuscripts the accusative (and nominative, where it is identical to the accusative) are sometimes found in these contexts. Phonological change may have had a role in this, since the earliest examples are neuters ending in -*ije, which may have been rendered homonymous with their locatives in –iji by the reduction of unstressed e to i. A single dialect preserves an inherited locative, which is used with the preposition na (originally ‘on’) to indicate both goal and location. Elsewhere, both of these functions have been taken over by na + accusative (i.e. oblique). ","loss","(case:locative)","Balkan slavic loss of instrumental","Balkan slavic loss of locative","helen_m47","Sobolev 1991,Wahlström 2015"
"helen_m225","Afrikaans","adjective","adjectives with final -e","Following the loss of nominal gender in Afrikaans, adjective forms in -ø and -e (which had been partly conditioned by gender) were in free variation for a time, before a single variant was generalised for each adjective lexeme, conditioned by various phonological and morphological factors.","replacement","(gender:neuter)","Afrikaans adjectives","Afrikaans adjectives in -e","helen_m223","Lass 1990"
"helen_m43","Greek","noun","masculine nouns","In the earliest (15th century AD) Cypriot Greek texts, the masculine genitive plural has been replaced in its possessive function by the accusative plural, but is retained with prepositions, partitives, pronouns and proper names. Subsequently, the accusative plural  has replaced the genitive plural for masculine nouns, possibly as the result of sustained contact with Old French (which had only a direct/oblique case distinction) during the Middle Ages under the Frankish Lusignan dynasty.","replacement","(number:plural case:genitive)","None","None","helen_m42","Sidaridou & Terkourafi 2009"
"helen_m42","Greek","noun","masculine nouns","In the earliest (15th century AD) Cypriot Greek texts, the masculine genitive plural has been replaced in its possessive function by the accusative plural, but is retained with prepositions, partitives, pronouns and proper names. Subsequently, the accusative plural  has replaced the genitive plural for masculine nouns, possibly as the result of sustained contact with Old French (which had only a direct/oblique case distinction) during the Middle Ages under the Frankish Lusignan dynasty.","replacement","(number:plural case:genitive)","None","None","helen_m41","Sidaridou & Terkourafi 2009"
"helen_m41","Greek","noun","None","In full noun phrases, the dative case was finally replaced in its core indirect object marking functions by prepositional phrases with eis 'into' + accusative (continued by se + accusative in Standard Modern Greek)","loss","(case:dative)","None","None","helen_m38","Horrocks 2010"
"helen_m40","Greek","noun","None","Further functions of the dative case in noun phrase complements were taken over by the accusative cases in Northern varieties, following the same change in the pronouns, and encouraged by new patterns of accusatve-dative syncretism created by sound changes in certain noun classes.","replacement","(case:dative)","Classical 1st 2nd declension acc gen dat sg","acc dat phonological mergers 1st 2nd declension acc gen dat sg with raising of o","helen_m38","Horrocks 2010"
"helen_m47","Bulgarian & Macedonian","noun","None","The bare instrumental in Old Church Slavonic indicated instrument, route, and the agent of passive constructions. These functions were taken over by a prepositional construction using sъ ‘with’ + acc, which normally indicated accompaniment in OCS, but could already be used occasionally to convey instrumentality (a handful of prepositions could be used with both instrumental and accusative to convey movement towards, which may have been an additional motivating factor). The merger may have been encouraged by contact with non-Slavic languages of the Balkans, which all employ the same strategy to express both instrument and accompaniment.  ","loss","(case:instrumental)","Balkan slavic vowel mergers","Balkan slavic loss of instrumental","None","Wahlström 2015"
"helen_m46","Bulgarian & Macedonian","noun","ā-stems","Following the replacement of dual forms by plurals, various sound changes (denasalisation of vowels, merger of /i/ and /y/, contraction of vowels and vowel raising in unaccented syllables) caused widespread syncretism in Balkan Slavic noun paradigms, particularly between the nominative and accusative.","replacement","(number:dual)(number:singular case:accusative)(case:instrumental number:singular)","OCS declensions","Balkan slavic vowel mergers","None","Wahlström 2015"
"helen_m45","Bulgarian & Macedonian","noun","o-stems","Following the replacement of dual forms by plurals, various sound changes (denasalisation of vowels, merger of /i/ and /y/, contraction of vowels and vowel raising in unaccented syllables) caused widespread syncretism in Balkan Slavic noun paradigms, particularly between the nominative and accusative.","replacement","(number:dual)(number:plural case:accusative)(case:instrumental number:plural)","OCS declensions","Balkan slavic vowel mergers","None","Wahlström 2015"
"helen_m44","Serbo-Croatian","noun","None","In Štokavian dialects (including standard Serbian, Croatian, Bosnian and Montenegrin), dative-locative syncretism already present in many Old Church Slavonic noun classes has been extended almost universally. The merger of dual and plural number has been achieved by generalising the plural forms in the nominative, accusative and genitive cases, and the dual forms in the instrumental, dative and locative.","replacement","(case:locative)(number:dual case:nominative)(number:dual case:accusative)(number:dual case:genitive)(number:plural case:dative)(number:plural case:instrumental)","OCS i-stems and o-stems","Serbo-Croatian i-stems and o-stems","None","None"
"helen_m182","Proto-Germanic","verb","verbs with imperfectives in *sk or nasal infix","In the development from Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Germanic, the subjunctive merged functionally with the present indicative. Usually this merger was in favour of the indicative forms, except for a few verbs, where the former subjunctive ousted the indicative instead (particularly verbs whose present forms in other IE languages reflect derived imperfectives with the suffix *sk or a nasal infix). Proto-Germanic retained a distinction between indicative and subjunctive mood, but the subjunctive formally continued the PIE optative, and probably spanned the functional range of both the PIE optative and subjunctive.","replacement","(mood:subjunctive)(tense:present)","PIE mood mergers","PGmc mood mergers subjunctive replaces indicative","None","Ringe 2006"
"helen_m185","English","verb","None","The Proto-Indo-European passive was lost in all Germanic languages, apart from Gothic (with a couple of fossilised exceptions like hātte ‘is called’ < PGmc *haitadai, which is attested in early West Saxon, a dialect of Old English). Old English innovated a periphrastic passive, using the auxiliary beon/wesan ‘be’ or weorðan ‘become’. ","loss","(voice:mediopassive)","PGmc loss of mediopassive","OE loss of mediopassive","helen_m184","Ringe 2006"
"helen_m184","Proto-Germanic","verb","None","During the development of Proto-Germanic, third person dual forms were replaced by plurals. In addition, the third person plural replaced other plural forms in the mediopassive voice.","replacement","(number:dual person:3)(voice:mediopassive number:plural person:1)(voice:mediopassive number:plural person:2)","PIE spread of 3pl forms","PGmc spread of 3pl forms","None","Ringe 2006"
"helen_m167","Mainland Scandinavian","adjective","indeclinable adjectives","A small but significant subset of adjectives are fully uninflectable, e.g. kry ‘proud’.","replacement","","Early Modern Swedish and Norwegian adjectives III","Scandinavian adjectives uninflectable","helen_m165","Sims-Williams and Enger in prep"
"helen_m166","Mainland Scandinavian","adjective","adjectives lacking gender agreement","Certain adjectives have lost gender agreement, but retain number agreement (e.g. Nw vennlig ‘friendly’).","replacement","(number:singular definiteness:indefinite gender:neuter)","Early Modern Swedish and Norwegian adjectives III","Scandinavian adjectives loss of gender agreement","helen_m165","Sims-Williams and Enger in prep"
"helen_m8","Akkadian","noun","None","In late Neo-Babylonian inscriptions, singular case suffixes have been lost (sometimes with the exception of the genitive).In the plural, the nominative form has been generalised for masculine nouns, while feminine plurals have generalised the oblique.","replacement","(state:free number:singular)(state:free gender:masculine case:accusative)(state:free gender:masculine case:genitive)(gender:masculine number:plural case:accusative)(gender:masculine number:plural case:genitive)(state:free gender:feminine case:nominative)","Loss of dual","Late NB inscriptions","helen_m3","Stein 2000"
"helen_m9","Arabic","noun","None","While Classical Arabic had a three-case system, Modern Arabic dialects have all lost case. Caseless dialects are attested as early as the 9th century AD. All have generalised the original oblique as the masculine plural and dual. This may have been connected with a widespread but not universal shift from VSO to SVO word order, and syntactic changes which increased the redundancy of the case system, in addition to phonological loss of final vowels.","Mixed","(case:nominative)(number:singular)","Classical Arabic","Modern arabic dialects","None","Hasselbach 2013,Fück 1950,Ambros 1972"
"helen_m163","Mainland Scandinavian","adjective","None","The three-gender system of the indefinite adjectives tended to be reduced to a binary system opposing neuter to masculine and feminine. In many dialects, this was achieved by generalising the feminine form. This system, conflating masculine and feminine in the indefinite and feminine and neuter in the definite, survives in some Swedish dialects today.","replacement","(definiteness:indefinite number:plural gender:neuter)(definiteness:indefinite number:plural gender:feminine)(definiteness:indefinite gender:masculine number:singular)","Early Modern Swedish and Norwegian adjectives I","Early Modern Swedish and Norwegian adjectives II","helen_m162","Mørck 2005"
"helen_m162","Mainland Scandinavian","adjective","None","In the early modern mainland Scandinavian languages case had been lost in adjective paradigms. The most complicated systems retain three gender distinctions in indefinite adjectives. Definite adjectives in Swedish and Norwegian sometimes show a binary opposition between the masculine on the one hand, and the neuter and feminine on the other; in Swedish the masculine suffix is usually limited to animate nouns, and sometimes found also in the plural.","Mixed","(number:plural)(definiteness:indefinite)(gender:masculine)","OSw and ONw adjectives","Early Modern Swedish and Norwegian adjectives I","helen_m160","Mørck 2005"
"helen_m161","Mainland Scandinavian","adjective","None","In Old Danish, the phonological merger of unstressed i, a and u caused total syncretism of case, gender and number in definite adjectives. In indefinite adjectives this combined  with the loss of final -r and various morphological changes to reduce the number of inflectional distinctions.","neutralisation","(definiteness:definite)(number:singular gender:neuter case:dative)(gender:feminine case:accusative)(number:plural gender:masculine case:accusative)(number:plural case:genitive)(number:plural gender:feminine case:nominative)(number:plural gender:masculine case:nominative)(number:singular gender:feminine case:dative)(gender:feminine case:genitive)","ON adjectives","ODan adjectives","helen_m136","Mørck 2005"
"helen_m160","Mainland Scandinavian","adjective","None","Unlike Old Danish, Old Swedish and Norwegian generally preserve distinctions in adjective paradigms well in the indefinite (strong). In the definite (weak) forms, case distinctions are often levelled, although the dative plural in -um and the nominative/oblique contrast in the masculine singular are sometimes retained.","replacement","(definiteness:definite case:dative number:plural)(definiteness:definite gender:feminine number:singular case:accusative)(definiteness:definite case:dative gender:feminine)(definiteness:definite gender:feminine number:singular case:genitive)","ON adjectives","OSw and ONw adjectives","helen_m136","Mørck 2005"
"helen_m2","Akkadian","noun","None","In Old Babylonian and Assyrian, the loss of final -i eliminated word-final short vowels, leading to the total loss of case contrasts in the construct state (except where the genitive suffix was protected by a following pronominal suffix, e.g. ana kalbī-šu 'for his dog').","replacement","(state:construct number:singular case:genitive)","Old Akkadian II","Old Babylonian & Assyrian","helen_m1","Hasselbach 2013,Huehnergard 2005"
"helen_m3","Akkadian","noun","None","Dual forms are replaced by plurals.","replacement","(number:dual)","Old Babylonian and Assyrian full","Loss of dual","helen_m2","None"
"helen_m1","Akkadian","noun","None","In Old Akkadian, short final -a and -u were lost, leading to the merger of nominative and accusative singular in construct state forms. (The loss of case marking then spread analogically from forms where the nominative and accusative suffixes were word-final to forms where they were followed by pronominal suffixes).","neutralisation","(state:construct number:singular case:nominative)(state:construct number:singular case:accusative)","Old Akkadian I","Old Akkadian II","None","Hasselbach 2013,Huehnergard 2005"
"helen_m6","Akkadian","noun","None","In late Neo-Assyrian, following the loss of the nominative and accusative singular suffixes, the genitive singular suffix is also lost, leading to the total loss of case.","replacement","(state:free number:singular case:genitive)","Late Neo-Assyrian I","Late Neo-Assyrian II","helen_m5","Hasselbach 2013"
"helen_m7","Akkadian","noun","None","In Neo-Babylonian letters, the nominative singular suffix has spread to the accusative and (less reliably) the genitive, while the masculine plural nominative and oblique suffixes have swapped places in the paradigm. In the feminine plural, the oblique suffix replaces the nominative.","replacement","(state:free gender:feminine case:nominative number:plural)(state:free number:singular case:accusative)(state:free number:singular case:genitive)","Loss of dual","NB letters","helen_m3","Woodington 1982"
"helen_m4","Akkadian","noun","None","In Neo-Assyrian, the accusative/genitive form is generalised in the plural, and the nominative singular suffix spreads to the accusative singular. Subject and direct object are usually differentiated by word order (SOV), but ana ('to/for') + genitive case was used to indicate singular direct objects where there would otherwise be ambiguity.","Mixed","(state:free number:singular case:accusative)(case:nominative number:plural)","Loss of dual","Neo-Assyrian","helen_m3","Hasselbach 2013,Luukko 2004"
"helen_m5","Akkadian","noun","None","In late Neo-Assyrian, the short -a and -u of the nominative and accusative singular case endings are lost.","replacement","(state:free number:singular case:nominative)(state:free number:singular case:accusative)","Neo-Assyrian","Late Neo-Assyrian I","helen_m4","Hasselbach 2013"
"helen_m101","English","pronoun","None","Third plural forms in -h began to yield to a new Scandinavian type in þ-, starting in the North and moving South, beginning in the nominative plural and followed by the genitive plural.","neutralisation","(number:plural person:3 case:genitive)","ME 3rd person pronouns II","ME 3rd person pronouns III","helen_m100","Lass 1992"
"helen_m100","English","pronoun","None","Third plural forms in -h began to yield to a new Scandinavian type in þ-, starting in the North and moving South, beginning in the nominative plural.","neutralisation","(case:nominative number:plural person:3)","ME 3rd person pronouns I","ME 3rd person pronouns II","helen_m99","Lass 1992"
"helen_m103","English","interrogative pronoun","None","The dative and accusative of the interrogative/indefinite pronoun merged in Middle English, as in other pronoun paradigms. The old instrumental form survived as an indeclinable autonomous word, the source of Present-Day English 'why'.","Mixed","(case:accusative gender:masculine)(case:accusative gender:feminine)(case:dative gender:neuter)(case:instrumental)","OE interrogative and indefinite pronouns","ME interrogative and indefinite pronouns I","None","Lass 1992"
"helen_m102","English","pronoun","None","During the Middle English period, genitive forms of third person pronouns became syntactically detached from the pronoun paradigm and developed a syntactically independent use as possessive adjectives, which could no longer occur with partitive meaning or as verbal objects. The same change had already occurred in the first and second person pronouns. ","loss","(case:genitive)","ME 3rd person pronouns III","ME 3rd person pronouns IV","helen_m101","Lass 1992"
"helen_m105","English","demonstrative pronoun","None","Like the weak demonstrative, the Old English emphatic demonstrative shows gender confusion in Middle English, followed by the generalisation throughout the singular of the masculine nominative form þes (in Southern dialects), or the neuter nominative-accusative þis (in Northern dialects). These generated analogical plurals which replaced the inherited case forms.","Mixed","","OE strong demonstratives","ME strong demonstratives","None","Lass 1992"
"helen_m104","English","demonstrative pronoun","None","In Middle English, the 'weak' demonstrative was undergoing grammaticalisation as a definite article. Alongside this semantic development, we first find confusion in gender agreement, followed by gradual generalisation (starting in the East and North) of a single plural form þa/þo and singular þe. The singular form reflects the old masculine nominative singular, with analogical introduction of initial þ- from most other cells of the paradigm. The general breakdown of gender marking enabled the neuter nominative-accusative to disconnect semantically from the paradigm and develop a distal sense, as in its Present-Day English descendant 'that'.","replacement","","OE weak demonstratives","ME weak demonstratives I","None","Lass 1992"
"helen_m107","English","demonstrative pronoun","None","The singular form of the old weak demonstrative continued to grammaticalise as a definite article, generalising the singular form þe (giving Present-Day English 'the'). The plural þa/þo detached from the paradigm and was remodelled as 'those', becoming the plural of the new distal demonstrative 'that'.","replacement","(number:plural)","ME weak demonstratives I","ME weak demonstratives II","helen_m104","Lass 1992"
"helen_m106","English","demonstrative pronoun","None","Following the loss of case and gender in the strong demonstrative pronoun, the Northern variant of the singular and the Southern variant of the plural were generalised. The new paradigm became a proximal demonstrative (this/these), opposed to the neuter of the Old English weak demonstrative which had developed a distal meaning (that).","Mixed","","ME strong demonstratives","ME proximal demonstrative","helen_m105","Lass 1992"
"helen_m109","English","adjective","None","When case and gender marking were lost in determiners, the corresponding distinctions were lost in adjectives as well. By the 12th century, all that remained of adjective inflection was an opposition between forms with final -∅, which was the regular outcome for the masc/neut nom sg. of the strong declension, and -e, which could have originated in the feminine nom-acc sg. and nom-acc pl. of all genders in the strong declension, and the nom. sg. of the weak declension. In the 12th-century Ormulum this opposition appears to have no functional significance: the two variants are used in the same syntactic contexts, and appear to be conditioned by metrical considerations. By the time of Chaucer, the opposition had been redeployed as a marker of definiteness and number: -e is usually found in definite NPs (including in direct address) and attributive plurals, -∅ elsewhere. In later ME, this pattern was retained for monosyllabic adjectives, but –e was usually deleted after longer adjectives, and could always be omitted in poetry when metrically convenient.","replacement","","ME phonologically expected outcome of full adjective paradigm","ME actual outcome of full adjective paradigm","helen_m108","Lass 1992"
"helen_m108","English","adjective","None","Various sound changes (the reduction of final unstressed vowels to schwa, and the merger of final -m and -n) led to widespread syncretism in adjective paradigms.","replacement","(definiteness:definite gender:masculine number:singular case:nominative)(number:plural case:dative)(case:dative definiteness:indefinite gender:masculine)(case:dative definiteness:indefinite gender:neuter)(number:plural case:genitive)","Late OE adjectives full paradigm","ME phonologically expected outcome of full adjective paradigm","helen_m88","Lass 1992"
"helen_m189","English","verb","None","Syncretism of the first and third person singular in the past indicative of strong verbs had been inherited from Proto-Germanic. In Old English, this has been extended to all subjunctives, by transferring the 3sg suffix –e (< *ai in the present subjunctive, *ī in the preterite) to the 1sg. (The same change may have taken place in the preterite indicative of weak verbs – that is what happened in the ancestor of Old High German, via extension of 1sg -dō to the  3sg – but since the two would have merged phonologically in OE anyway, we have no way of telling).","replacement","(mood:subjunctive number:singular person:1)","PGmc 1 and 3 sg syncretism","OE 1 and 3 sg syncretism","helen_m188","Ringe 2006"
"helen_m188","English","verb","None","Third person imperatives were lost in the prehistory of Old English, leaving only singular and plural second person forms.","loss","(mood:imperative person:3)","OE loss of person marking in pl","OE loss of 3rd person imperative","helen_m187","Ringe 2006"
"helen_m58","Jingulu","nominal","None","Nominals denoting properties optionally show neuter forms when agreeing with vegetable gender heads.","replacement","(gender:vegetable)","Jingulu conservative gender system","Jingulu neut replaces veg","None","Meakins & Pensalfini 2016"
"helen_m59","Jingulu","nominal","None","Nominals denoting properties optionally show masculine forms when agreeing with heads of any gender.","replacement","(gender:feminine)(gender:neuter)(gender:vegetable)","Jingulu neut replaces veg","Jingulu masc generalised","helen_m58","Meakins & Pensalfini 2016"
"helen_m54","Icelandic","pronoun","None","In the first person pronoun, the old dual form became an unmarked plural, restricting the inherited plural to honorific function, following the same change in the second person pronoun.","replacement","(number:plural person:1 politeness:familiar)","Icelandic dual 2nd person replaces pl","Icelandic dual 1st person replaces pl","helen_m53","Guðmundsson 1972"
"helen_m55","Faroese","pronoun","None","Honorifics derived from plurals have disappeared in the spoken language, but the oblique stem of the second person honorific has survived as a polite singular. ","loss","(number:plural politeness:polite)","Faroese pronouns I","Faroese pronouns II","helen_m54","Guðmundsson 1972"
"helen_m56","German","pronoun","None","In High German, plural pronouns replaced inherited duals.","replacement","(number:dual)","Old Saxon pronouns","Hochdeutsch pronouns","None","Guðmundsson 1972"
"helen_m57","German","pronoun","None","In some Westphalian and Bavarian dialects, second person plural pronouns continue the old dual.","replacement","(number:dual person:1)(number:plural person:2)","Old Saxon pronouns","Bavarian pronouns","None","Guðmundsson 1972"
"helen_m50","Bulgarian & Macedonian","noun","None","The ‘locative’ construction with the preposition na + acc replaced the dative in its various adnominal functions, last of all where it encoded possession. An earlier competitor using the preposition otъ ‘from’, is still found in some dialects, perhaps due to Romance influence (cf. Romanian de).","loss","(case:dative)","Balkan slavic loss of genitive","Balkan slavic loss of dative","helen_m49","Minčeva 1964,Wahlström 2015"
"helen_m51","Bulgarian & Macedonian","noun","None","The oblique case, which continued the functions of the old genitive, locative, dative and instrumental, was replaced by the nominative in most varieties. In some dialects a distinct accusative has survived only for kinship nouns. Otherwise, the most widely retained accusative for is the o-stem genitive-accusative whose use is limited to proper male names and kinship terms (this is a feature of standard Bulgarian and Macedonian). These restrictions may indicate that the accusative was lost first in inanimates and the loss proceeded along an animacy scale. Regardless, the change was also encouraged by near-complete syncretism of nominative and accusative caused by vowel mergers.","replacement","(case:accusative)","None","None","helen_m50","Wahlström 2015"
"helen_m52","Icelandic","pronoun","None","In first and second person pronouns, the plural took on an additional honorific value: vér 'we' as a royal plural, used in formal contexts, and þér 'you (pl)' as a polite address, usually singular.","Mixed","","Old Norse pronouns","Icelandic plurals become honorifics","None","Guðmundsson 1972"
"helen_m53","Icelandic","pronoun","None","The second person dual pronoun became an unmarked plural, relegating the inherited plural to an honorific function.","replacement","(number:plural politeness:familiar person:2)","Icelandic plurals become honorifics","Icelandic dual 2nd person replaces pl","helen_m52","Guðmundsson 1972"
"helen_m218","Maltese","noun","None","In Maltese, plural forms have normally replaced duals, with two exceptions: (i) nouns denoting natural pairs (e.g. id 'hand'), where the plural reflects the old dual, and (ii) some nouns denoting units of time or currency, where a three way number distinction remains.","replacement","(number:dual)","three number values","plural replaces dual maltese and gaelic","None","Plank 1996"
"matthew_m8","Ncam","verb","None","Verbal number lost through generalization of plural form for imperfective and singular forms for perfective.","loss","(aspect:imperfective verbal_number:singular)(verbal_number:plural aspect:perfective)","ncam1","ncam2","None","Cox 1998"
"helen_m221","Maltese","noun","nouns denoting natural pairs","In Maltese, plural forms have normally replaced duals, with two exceptions: (i) nouns denoting natural pairs (e.g. id 'hand'), where the plural reflects the old dual, and (ii) some nouns denoting units of time or currency, where a three way number distinction remains.","replacement","(number:plural)","three number values","dual replaces plural maltese natural pairs","None","Plank 1996"
"helen_m198","Dagaare","adjective","adjectives with gender 2 forms","In Dagaare, gender agreement has been lost in adjectives by generalising a single set of singular/plural sufffixes for each adjective. Nearly all adjectives have the suffixes of genders with plurals in -rI (genders 2, 6 and 7).","replacement","","Dagaare gender system","Dagaare adjective gender 2","None","Good 2012,Dakubu 2005"
"matthew_m1","Malayalam","verb","None","Agreement suffixes dropped in 3sg and 3pl human present between Old Malayalam and the 14th century.","neutralisation","(tense:present gender:masculine)(tense:present gender:feminine)(tense:present person:3rd number:singular)","old_malayalam","14thc","None","None"
"matthew_m9","Georgian","adjective","attributive","Partial phonological reduction of suffixes and (unconnected) case syncretism.","replacement","(case:instrumental)(case:adverbial)","georgianI","georgianII","None","Boeder 1987"
"helen_m199","Dagaare","adjective","adjectives with gender 7 forms","In Dagaare, gender agreement has been lost in adjectives by generalising a single set of singular/plural sufffixes for each adjective. Nearly all adjectives have the suffixes of genders with plurals in -rI (genders 2, 6 and 7).","replacement","","Dagaare gender system","Dagaare adjective gender 7","None","Good 2012,Dakubu 2005"
"helen_m134","Bulgarian","pronoun","None","In a large number of dialects of Northwestern Bulgaria, synthetic dative forms are replaced by a prepositional construction using na 'on' + accusative case. This is found most commonly in the 1pl and 2pl pronouns (no data is available for the 1sg or 2sg).","loss","(number:plural case:dative person:1)(case:dative number:plural person:2)","Conservative bulgarian dialects pronouns","bulgarian dialects pronouns dative replaced by prepositions II","helen_m128","Krasovitsky 2019"
"helen_m135","Bulgarian","pronoun","None","In a large number of dialects of Northwestern Bulgaria, synthetic dative forms are replaced by a prepositional construction using na 'on' + accusative case. This is found most commonly in the 1pl and 2pl pronouns (no data is available for the 1sg or 2sg). More rarely, it also extends to the third person (but where third person forms are affected, the singular forms are more likely to exist alongside synthetic dative or accusative alternatives).","loss","(case:dative person:3)","bulgarian dialects pronouns dative replaced by prepositions II","bulgarian dialects pronouns dative replaced by prepositions III","helen_m134","Krasovitsky 2019"
"helen_m136","Old Norse","nominal","None","During the development of Old Norse from Proto-Germanic, nominative forms replaced vocatives (the two were usually syncretic already), and the functions of the instrumental case were taen over by dative forms. Separate instrumentals survived longest in pronoun paradigms.","replacement","(number:singular case:vocative)(case:instrumental)","Proto-Germanic nouns (pre-ON)","ON nouns","helen_m71","Syrett 2002"
"helen_m137","Mainland Scandinavian","noun","masculine weak nouns","The phonological merger of unstressed i and a, combined with the loss of final -r, caused almost invariant inflection in the indefinite forms of masculine weak nouns (an-stems). This was completed earliest in Old Danish.","Mixed","(case:nominative)(number:singular case:accusative)(definiteness:indefinite number:singular)(definiteness:indefinite case:accusative)(definiteness:indefinite case:genitive)","ON masculine weak nouns pre vowel mergers","Old Danish masculine weak nouns","helen_m136","Mørck 2005"
"helen_m130","Bulgarian","pronoun","None","In a few areas of Northwestern Bulgaria, the replacement of dative by accusative forms has extended to the 3pl. This may be via a transitional stage in which dative functions are expressed by a preposition + dative, which is also widely attested; many dialects allow both options for the 1pl and 2pl. ","replacement","(case:dative number:plural)","bulgarian dialects pronouns dative replaced by accusative II","bulgarian dialects pronouns dative replaced by accusative III","helen_m129","Krasovitsky 2019"
"helen_m131","Bulgarian","pronoun","None","In at least one area of Northwestern Bulgaria, the replacement of dative by accusative forms has extended to the 3sg feminine. This may be via a transitional stage in which dative functions are expressed by a preposition + dative, which is also widely attested; many dialects allow both options for the 1pl and 2pl.  This is not extended to the third singular masculine/neuter; no data is available on the first or second person singular forms.","replacement","(case:dative gender:feminine)","bulgarian dialects pronouns dative replaced by accusative III","bulgarian dialects pronouns dative replaced by accusative IV","helen_m130","Krasovitsky 2019"
"helen_m132","Bulgarian","pronoun","None","In the majority of Northwestern Bulgarian dialects, dative forms tend to be replaced by accusative forms, but in a minority of areas the accusative form is instead replaced by the dative. This is most common in the third person plural forms (although no data is provided for 1sg, 2sg or 3sg f), and can coexist with a marking system in which the dative in indirect object marking function is reinforced by the preposition na 'on'.","replacement","(number:plural person:3 case:accusative)","Conservative bulgarian dialects pronouns","Bulgarian pronouns dat replaces acc I","helen_m128","Krasovitsky 2019"
"helen_m133","Bulgarian","pronoun","None","In the majority of Northwestern Bulgarian dialects, dative forms tend to be replaced by accusative forms, but in a minority of areas the accusative form is instead replaced by the dative. This is most common in the third person plural forms (although no data is provided for 1sg, 2sg or 3sg f), and can coexist with a marking system in which the dative in indirect object marking function is reinforced by the preposition na 'on'. More rarely (in 6 locations sampled by Krasovitsky 2019) it is also extended to the 1pl and 2pl.","replacement","(number:plural case:accusative person:1)(number:plural case:accusative person:2)","Bulgarian pronouns dat replaces acc I","Bulgarian pronouns dat replaces acc II","helen_m132","Krasovitsky 2019"
"helen_m138","Mainland Scandinavian","noun","feminine weak nouns","In Old Zealandic, the phonological merger of unstressed a/i/u combined with the loss of final -r caused almost total syncretism in the indefinite of feminine weak nouns.","neutralisation","(definiteness:indefinite number:singular)(definiteness:indefinite case:nominative)(definiteness:indefinite case:accusative)","ON feminine weak nouns pre vowel mergers","Old Zealandic feminine weak nouns","helen_m136","Mørck 2005"
"helen_m139","Mainland Scandinavian","noun","None","In the mainland Scandinavian languages accusatives replaced nominative forms. This was completed earliest in Old Danish, where the phonological merger of unstressed a and i also caused further syncretism.","replacement","(case:nominative)","ON a-stems","Old Danish nouns loss of accusative","helen_m136","Mørck 2005"
"helen_m192","English","verb","None","By early Middle English, the merger of unstressed vowels as schwa increased syncretism in verb paradigms.","neutralisation","(tense:present mood:indicative number:plural)(tense:present mood:indicative person:3)(number:plural mood:imperative)","Old English verbs","Early ME verbs","helen_m191","Lass 1992"
"helen_m193","English","verb","None","In Middle English the plural suffix –en, which continues both subjunctive –en and past –on, spread to the present indicative. The deletion of e (schwa) word-finally and after stressed heavy syllables, and the variable deletion of final -n, caused further syncretism in verb paradigms.","replacement","(mood:indicative number:plural tense:present)","Early ME verbs","Early ME spread of plural -en","helen_m192","Lass 1992"
"helen_m190","English","verb","None","In the past subjunctive of weak verbs, the loss of final *z in the 2sg would have made it identical to the 3sg. The same effect was achieved in the present subjunctive by generalising the suffix *e from Proto-Germanic *aiz, rather than its allomorph *ais, which would have given **es. These developments, in combination with 1sg/3sg syncretism and plural syncretism, created a single subjunctive pattern of inflection in which person was no longer marked at all.","replacement","(mood:subjunctive number:singular person:2)","OE 1 and 3 sg syncretism","OE loss of person marking in subjunctive singular","helen_m189","Ringe 2006"
"helen_m29","Old French","noun","3rd declension","Oblique forms were generalised across all noun paradigms, leading to the loss of case distinctions in the noun.","replacement","(case:direct number:plural)","Old French nouns generalisation of oblique  I","Old French nouns generalisation of oblique  II","helen_m26","van Reenen & Schøsler 2000,Sornicola 2011"
"helen_m28","Old French","noun","3rd declension masculine (with stem alternations)","Masculine 3rd declension nouns with stem alternations between the direct singular and other cases/numbers assimilated to the pattern of the masculine 2nd declension.","replacement","(case:direct number:plural)","Old French nouns morphological restructuring masculine I","Old French nouns morphological restructuring masculine II","helen_m24","Sornicola 2011"
"helen_m191","English","verb","None","The subjunctive singular suffix is probably the source of -e in the 1sg present indicative (instead of -u < *-ō, which is found in some early dialects), perhaps by copying syncretism of the indicative and subjunctive 1sg which had arisen by phonological merger in a minority of verbs. In later Old English, the plural of the past subjunctive was replaced with –on, falling together with the past indicative.","replacement","(person:1 mood:indicative tense:present number:singular)(mood:subjunctive number:plural tense:past)","OE internal developments I","OE internal developments II","helen_m190","Hogg 1992,Ringe 2006"
"helen_m21","Old French","noun","None","Various sound changes in final syllables (vowel mergers and loss of final nasals) caused the merger of the Latin non-nominative cases, helped by the increasing use of prepositions first to reinforce and then replace the disappearing case forms. This led to the creation of a new direct/oblique case contrast.","loss","(case:genitive)(case:dative)(case:ablative)","Late latin noun declensions","Late latin noun declensions post final nasal loss and vowel mergers","None","Herman 2000"
"helen_m20","Greek","verb","None","The perfect became synonymous with the past perfective by semantic change. During the Byzantine period the two sets of forms were used interchangeably, until each verb eventually settled on a single variant: usually the original past perfective, but occasionally the perfect.","replacement","(aspect:perfective)","classical attic perfect aorist","modern greek perfect aorist","None","Horrocks 2010,Sims-Williams 2016"
"helen_m23","Old French","noun","2nd declension","Sound changes in final syllables caused widespread syncretism in Old French noun paradigms.","neutralisation","","Late latin noun declensions","Late latin noun declensions post final nasal loss and vowel mergers","helen_m21","Sornicola 2011"
"helen_m22","Old French","noun","1st declension","Sound changes in final syllables caused widespread syncretism in Old French noun paradigms.","neutralisation","","Late latin noun declensions","Late latin noun declensions post final nasal loss and vowel mergers","helen_m21","Sornicola 2011"
"helen_m25","Old French","noun","1st declension","Feminine nouns of the first declension adopted a simple opposition between singular and plural, on the model of 3rd declension nouns.","replacement","(case:direct number:plural)","Old French nouns morphological restructuring feminine I","Old French nouns morphological restructuring feminine II","helen_m22","Sornicola 2011"
"helen_m24","Old French","noun","3rd declension (no stem alternations)","Sound changes in final syllables caused widespread syncretism in Old French noun paradigms.","neutralisation","(number:singular)","Late latin noun declensions","Late latin noun declensions post final nasal loss and vowel mergers","helen_m21","Sornicola 2011"
"helen_m27","Old French","noun","3rd declension masculine","Masculine nouns of the 3rd declension assimilated to the case-marking pattern which had been established by sound change in the 2nd declension, with syncretism between the direct singular and oblique plural on the one hand, and between the direct plural and oblique singular on the other.","replacement","(case:direct)","Old French nouns morphological restructuring masculine I","Old French nouns morphological restructuring masculine II","helen_m24","Sornicola 2011"
"helen_m26","Old French","noun","3rd declension feminine (with stem alternations)","Feminine nouns of the third declension which had not already developed case syncretism in the singular, by virtue of their stem alternations, partially assimilated to the pattern which had developed by sound change in the regular third declension. This eliminated case distinctions in the singular, while reinstating them in the plural.","Mixed","(case:oblique number:singular)(case:direct number:plural)","Old French nouns morphological restructuring feminine I","Old French nouns morphological restructuring feminine II","helen_m24","Sornicola 2011"
"helen_m194","English","verb","None","For a long period the verb suffix –e was in competition with zero, depending on various phonological and metrical factors. Early Modern English had three plural verb endings: -(e)th, the inherited present indicative suffix, -(e)s, which originated in the North via Scandinavian influence, and –en, from the subjunctive and preterite. The last of these developed a variant –e when final nasals were lost in some environments. Because this was identical to the conservative pronunciation of –e, which had an alternative zero pronunciation, the zero option was also extended to –en. Eventually, the zero variants of all of these suffixes were generalised, eliminating the majority of person and number marking, with the exception of the 2sg and 3sg.","replacement","(number:plural mood:indicative)(number:plural mood:subjunctive)","Early ME spread of plural -en","Early ME loss of final nasals and unstressed schwa","helen_m193","Lass 1992"
"helen_m224","Afrikaans","adjective","adjectives without final -e","Following the loss of nominal gender in Afrikaans, adjective forms in -ø and -e (which had been partly conditioned by gender) were in free variation for a time, before a single variant was generalised for each adjective lexeme, conditioned by various phonological and morphological factors.","replacement","(gender:common)","Afrikaans adjectives","Afrikaans adjectives no e","helen_m223","Lass 1990"
"helen_m195","English","verb","None","The imperative plural suffix –eth was lost in Early Modern English.","replacement","(mood:imperative number:plural)","Early ME loss of final nasals and unstressed schwa","Early Modern English verbs","helen_m194","Lass 1992"
"helen_m214","Ilgar","verb","None","In Ilgar, the five-gender system of Proto-Iwaidjic which is preserved in Mawng, another member of the family, is retained in a reduced form only in the system of verb agreement. Masculine gender forms have replaced neuter, vegetable and miscellaneous forms, with the exception of a few verbs where the vegetable and neuter markers are preserved, but lexicalised to various degrees.","replacement","(gender:neuter)(gender:vegetable)(gender:miscellaneous)","Ilgar I","Ilgar II","None","Evans 2007b"
"matthew_m17","Anejom","verb","None","Variation or confusion in the use of subject agreement forms, suggesting an underlying weakening or collapse of the system.","Mixed","(person:1incl)(number:trial)(number:dual person:2nd)(number:dual person:3rd)(number:plural person:2nd)(number:plural person:3rd)(tense:past number:dual)(tense:past number:plural)(tense:aorist number:dual)(tense:aorist number:plural)","None","None","None","Lynch 2000"
"matthew_m14","Romani","adjective","attributive","Generalization of case loss in Hameln Sinti.","replacement","(case:oblique number:singular)","romani2","romani3","matthew_m13","Finck 1903,Elsik 2000,Holzinger 1993"
"matthew_m15","Romani","adjective","attributive","Loss of distinct feminine form (and hence gender distinction) in singular oblique in Hameln Sinti.","replacement","(case:oblique number:singular gender:feminine)","None","None","matthew_m13","None"
"matthew_m12","Mand","verb","None","3sg optionally replaces other agreement forms (as evidenced in texts and elicitation).","replacement","(person:1st)(person:2nd)(number:plural)","mand1","mand2","None","Daniels 2015"
"matthew_m13","Romani","adjective","attributive","Loss of case distinctions with inanimates in early 20th century Sinti.","replacement","(case:oblique number:singular)","romani1","romani2","None","Finck 1903,Elsik 2000"
"matthew_m10","Georgian","adjective","attributive","Loss of final consonants.","replacement","(case:nominative)","georgianII","georgianIII","matthew_m9","Boeder 1987"
"matthew_m11","Georgian","adjective","attributive","Generalization of nominative form in dialects of the western valley region.","replacement","(case:ergative)(case:dative)(case:adverbial)(case:vocative)","georgianIII","georgianV","matthew_m10","Boeder 1987"
"helen_m187","English","verb","None","The most conspicuous innovation in Old English verb inflection, shared with Old Frisian and Old Saxon, the other Northern West Germanic dialects, was the complete loss of person marking in the plural. The surviving plural form always reflects the regular outcome of the Proto-Germanic 3pl.","replacement","(number:plural person:1)(number:plural person:2)","PGmc loss of person marking in pl","OE loss of person marking in pl","helen_m186","Ringe 2006"
"helen_m38","Greek","pronoun","None","Further functions of the dative case in complements (e.g. beneficiary marking) started to be taken over by the genitive and accusative cases, first in pronouns and later full noun phrases, based on the model of (a) verbs which could take two accusative objects in earlier Greek, and (b) various types of sentences in which dative and genitive appeared to have equivalent senses. The Southern dialects eventually generalised the genitive in these uses, and the Northern dialects generalised the accusative.","replacement","(case:dative)","None","None","helen_m37","None"
"helen_m39","Greek","noun","None","Further functions of the dative case in noun phrase complements were taken over by the accusative cases in Northern varieties, following the same change in the pronouns, and encouraged by new patterns of accusatve-dative syncretism created by sound changes in certain noun classes.","replacement","(number:singular case:accusative)(case:dative)","Classical 1st 2nd declension acc gen dat sg","acc dat phonological mergers 1st 2nd declension acc gen dat sg","helen_m38","Horrocks 2010"
"helen_m32","Latin","noun","2nd declension","The Latin ablative continues the function of the Proto-Indo-European ablative, locative and instrumental. In the singular of the Latin 2nd declension, the ablative suffix continues the PIE ablative (and in the 1st, 4th and i-stem declensions the ablative singular is analogically modelled on this suffix). In the plural of the 2nd declension, the ablative suffix reflects a merging of the PIE ablative and locative.","replacement","(case:instrumental)(case:locative)(number:plural case:ablative)","PIE abl-loc-inst","Latin ablative","None","Kulikov 2006"
"helen_m33","Latin","noun","3rd declension","The Latin ablative continues the function of the Proto-Indo-European ablative, locative and instrumental. In the singular of the Latin 3rd declension, the ablative suffix continues the PIE locative (except in i-stem nouns where it was rebuilt analogically on the 2nd declension). In the plural, the ablative suffix continues the PIE instrumental.","replacement","(case:ablative)(number:singular case:instrumental)(number:plural case:locative)","PIE abl-loc-inst","Latin ablative","None","Kulikov 2006"
"helen_m30","Old French","noun","2nd declension","Oblique forms were generalised across all noun paradigms, leading to the loss of case distinctions in the noun.","replacement","(case:direct)","Old French nouns generalisation of oblique  I","Old French nouns generalisation of oblique  II","helen_m23","Sornicola 2011,van Reenen & Schøsler 2000"
"helen_m31","Old French","noun","3rd declension masculine","Oblique forms were generalised across all noun paradigms, leading to the loss of case distinctions in the noun.","replacement","(case:direct)","Old French nouns generalisation of oblique  I","Old French nouns generalisation of oblique  II","helen_m28","Sornicola 2011,van Reenen & Schøsler 2000"
"helen_m36","Basque","verb","None","In some Basque varieties, an analytic construction has replaced the synthetic imperfective in all its values (both progressive and habitual).","loss","(aspect:imperfective)","None","None","helen_m35","Jendraschek 2003"
"helen_m37","Greek","noun","None","Starting in about the third century BC, peripheral functions of the dative case in adjuncts were replaced by prepositional competitors. The dative case was redundantly reinforced with the preposition en 'in' in temporal expressions.","loss","(case:dative)","Classical greek peripheral functions of dative","Hellenistic greek prepositional competitors to dative","None","Horrocks 2010"
"helen_m34","Latin","noun","5th declension","The Latin ablative continues the function of the Proto-Indo-European ablative, locative and instrumental. In the Latin 5th declension, both the singular and plural ablative suffixes reflect the PIE instrumental.","replacement","(case:ablative)(case:locative)","PIE abl-loc-inst","Latin ablative","None","Kulikov 2006"
"helen_m35","Basque","verb","None","A new analytic construction has usurped the habitual value of the inherited synthetic imperfective, which now marks only progressive.","loss","(aspect:imperfective)","None","None","None","Jendraschek 2003"
"helen_m213","Iwaidja","verb","None","In Iwaidja, the five-gender system of Proto-Iwaidjic which is preserved in Mawng, another member of the family, is retained in a reduced form only in verb agreement. Subject and object markers of miscellaneous gender have replaced those of the vegetable and neuter gender, with the exception of a few verbs where the vegetable and neuter markers are preserved, but lexicalised to various degrees. In addition, miscellaneous gender markers of transitive objects and intransitive subjects have replaced the equivalent masculine and feminine singular markers. Masculine and feminine singular subject markers in transitive verbs have been replaced by plurals.","replacement","(number:singular)","Iwaidja I","Iwaidja II","None","Evans 2007b"
"helen_m183","Proto-Germanic","verb","None","In the development of Proto-Germanic the inherited past tense forms were lost. In strong verbs, the PGmc past continues the Proto-Indo-European stative. Since stative verbs lacked a voice contrast, this also caused the loss of the past mediopassive. Weak verbs innovated a new preterite formation, by grammaticalisation of the past of the PIE verb *dheh1- ‘put’, which became a suffix marking past tense. With this one exception, PGmc does not show any reflexes of the PIE past.","loss","(tense:past)","PIE loss of inherited past","PGmc loss of inherited past","None","Ringe 2006"
"helen_m87","English","adjective","light stems","Following the loss of the nominative singular feminine indefinite suffix -u in heavy stems by sound change, the resulting gender syncretism was extended analogically to light stems.","replacement","(case:nominative gender:feminine definiteness:indefinite)","OE strong adjectives III","OE strong adjectives IV-V","helen_m86","Hogg 1992"
"helen_m86","English","adjective","heavy stems","In feminine indefinite adjectives with heavy stems, the nominative singular suffix -u was lost by sound change.","replacement","(case:nominative gender:feminine definiteness:indefinite)","OE strong adjectives III","OE strong adjectives IV-V","helen_m85","Hogg 1992"
"helen_m85","English","adjective","None","In early Old English, indefinite adjectives retain separate instrumental forms in the masculine and neuter singular, but these were later replaced by datives.","replacement","(case:instrumental number:singular definiteness:indefinite gender:masculine)(case:instrumental number:singular definiteness:indefinite gender:neuter)","OE strong adjectives II","OE strong adjectives III","helen_m84","Hogg 1992"
"helen_m84","English","adjective","None","The masculine nominative/accusative plural suffix spread to neuter and feminine indefinite adjectives, extending gender syncretism through the plural of indefinite ('strong') adjectives.","replacement","(number:plural definiteness:indefinite case:nominative gender:neuter)(number:plural definiteness:indefinite gender:neuter case:accusative)(number:plural definiteness:indefinite case:nominative gender:feminine)(definiteness:indefinite number:plural gender:feminine case:accusative)","OE strong adjectives I","OE strong adjectives II","helen_m83","Hogg 1992"
"helen_m83","English","adjective","None","Various pre-OE changes led to increased syncretism in indefinite adjectives, e.g. the phonological merger of genitive, dative and instrumental suffixes in the feminine singular and of the nominative singular masculine with the neuter nominative-accusative singular. The paradigm was further reduced by the replacement of the instrumental plural by the dative, and the merger of nominative and accusative plural.","Mixed","(number:dual)(definiteness:indefinite case:accusative number:plural)(definiteness:indefinite gender:masculine case:nominative number:singular)(definiteness:indefinite gender:neuter case:nominative number:singular)(definiteness:indefinite gender:neuter case:accusative)(definiteness:indefinite gender:feminine number:singular case:genitive)(definiteness:indefinite case:dative number:singular)(definiteness:indefinite gender:feminine case:instrumental)(case:instrumental number:plural)","PGmc strong adjectives","OE strong adjectives I","None","Ringe 2006"
"helen_m82","English","pronoun","None","In Old English, genitive forms of first and second person pronouns became syntactically disconnected from the inflectional paradigm: e.g. ūser 'of us' had forms with further inflectional suffixes added to the genitive suffix, which underwent regular syncope and assimilation to give the possessive adjective ūre.","loss","(case:genitive person:1)(case:genitive person:2)","OE pronouns 1st 2nd 3rd person III","OE pronouns 1st 2nd 3rd person IV","helen_m81","Hogg 1992"
"helen_m81","English","pronoun","None","In early Old English, first and second person pronouns had accusative forms which were distinguished from datives by the addition of a final element -(i)c. Soon afterwards, this element was lost, making the dative and accusative identical, perhaps via variation between careful and reduced pronunciations of the accusative forms.","replacement","(case:accusative person:1)(case:accusative person:2)","OE pronouns 1st 2nd 3rd person II","OE pronouns 1st 2nd 3rd person III","helen_m80","Hogg 1992"
"helen_m80","English","pronoun","None","Later in Old English, dual forms of 1st and 2nd person pronouns were replaced by plurals, along with the corresponding verb agreement forms.","replacement","(number:dual)","OE pronouns 1st 2nd 3rd person","OE pronouns 1st 2nd 3rd person II","helen_m79","Hogg 1992"
"helen_m89","English","noun","a-stems","By early Middle English, the merger of unstressed final vowels and of final m and n led to new patterns of case and number syncretism in the inherited a-stem paradigm.","neutralisation","(number:plural case:nominative)(number:plural case:accusative)(case:genitive)(number:singular case:dative)","OE a-stems","Early ME a-stems","helen_m72","Lass 1992"
"helen_m88","English","adjective","None","In later Old English, the indefinite genitive plural suffix -ra is sometimes found spreading to definite adjectives.","replacement","(definiteness:definite number:plural case:genitive)","OE weak adjectives I","OE weak adjectives II","helen_m87","Hogg 1992"
"helen_m211","Kitúba","verb","None","Kitúba has replaced synthetic subject and object marking with obligatory subject and object pronouns which lack gender agreement.","loss","","Kituba subject object marking I","Kituba subject object marking II","None","Mufwene 1997"
"helen_m165","Mainland Scandinavian","adjective","None","In most Swedish and Norwegian dialects gender distinctions were lost in the definite (this had taken place much earlier in Danish). The resulting system is essentially that of modern Danish, Norwegian and Swedish.","replacement","(definiteness:definite number:plural)(definiteness:definite gender:neuter)(definiteness:definite gender:feminine)","Early Modern Swedish and Norwegian adjectives II","Early Modern Swedish and Norwegian adjectives III","helen_m163","Mørck 2005"
"helen_m220","Scottish Gaelic","noun","certain feminine nouns ending in a non-palatalised consonant","In Scottish Gaelic, plural forms have normally replaced duals, except after numerals, where the singular forms are usually used. However, a small number of feminine nouns ending in a non-palatalised consonant retain a three-way number distinction only when they are preceded by a numeral, e.g. aon chas ‘one foot’, dà chois ‘two feet’, trì casan ‘three feet’, casan ‘feet’.","replacement","(number:dual)","three number values","Gaelic number normal pattern","None","Nurmio & Willis 2017"
"helen_m129","Bulgarian","pronoun","None","In a large number of dialects of Northwestern Bulgaria, dative 1pl and 2pl forms are replaced by the equivalent accusative forms. This may be via a transitional stage in which dative functions are expressed by a preposition + dative, which is also widely attested; many dialects allow both options for the 1pl and 2pl.","replacement","(number:plural case:dative person:1)(case:dative number:plural person:2)","Conservative bulgarian dialects pronouns","bulgarian dialects pronouns dative replaced by accusative II","helen_m128","Krasovitsky 2019"
"helen_m128","Bulgarian","pronoun","None","During the Middle Bulgarian period (12th-15th centuries), the case system inherited from proto-Slavic was largely lost. In modern Bulgarian, the accusative forms of pronouns continue the functions of the genitive, instrumental and locative cases.","replacement","(case:genitive)(case:instrumental)(case:locative)","OCS personal pronouns","Bulgarian pronouns merger of oblique","None","Krasovitsky 2019"
"helen_m123","Russian","verb","verbs with imperfective lexical aspect","In the development from Old to Middle Russian, the distinction between past imperfective (imperfect) forms/constructions and past perfectives using the auxiliary 'be' was gradually lost, with only the past perfectives ultimately surviving. For verbs with imperfective lexical aspect, these constructions survived with an imperfective value; forms of verbs with perfective lexical aspect could be used as paraphrases for the missing perfective forms.","replacement","(aspect:imperfective)","late common slavic perfect replaces aorist","late common slavic loss of imperfective","helen_m121","Andersen 2006,Maslov 1964,Kuznecov 1965,Ivanov 1982,Zaliznjak 2004"
"helen_m122","Russian","verb","verbs with perfective lexical aspect","In the development from Old to Middle Russian, the distinction between past imperfective (imperfect) forms/constructions and past perfectives using the auxiliary 'be' was gradually lost, with only the past perfectives ultimately surviving. For verbs with perfective lexical aspect, forms of lexically imperfective verbs could be used as paraphrases for the missing imperfective forms. ","loss","(aspect:imperfective)","late common slavic perfect replaces aorist","late common slavic loss of imperfective","helen_m121","Andersen 2006,Maslov 1964,Kuznecov 1965,Ivanov 1982,Zaliznjak 2004"
"helen_m121","Russian","verb","None","Between Old and Middle Russian, the present perfect replaced the past perfective. This change also affected forms of the verb 'be', remodelling the construction used to express the past perfective perfect (pluperfect).","replacement","(perfect:nonperfect aspect:perfective)","late common slavic","late common slavic perfect replaces aorist","None","Andersen 2006,Ivanov 1982,Maslov 1964,Klenin 1993"
"helen_m120","Serbo-Croatian","noun","None","In Kosovo-Resava dialects, the location-marking functions of prepositional constructions using the locative case are sometimes replaced by a construction using the preposition do 'to' + genitive or accusative. Similarly, the construction o + locative which was used with verbs of speaking or thinking has been replaced with prepositional constructions using the genitive or accusative case, e.g. *razgovarala o majki (loc) > razcovarala kod majke (gen) 'she spoke about the mother'.","replacement","(case:locative)","Kosovo-Resava dialects","Kosovo-Resava dialects gen or acc replaces loc","None","None"
"helen_m127","Russian","verb","None","In some Russian dialects, the past perfect was reanalysed as a distant past, and subsequently replaced by the preterite (in the dialects on which the standard language is based, however, it has been reanalysed and remodelled since the 1500s as a construction expressing an action which was planned or initiated, but did not come about).","replacement","(perfect:perfect)","modern russian loss of future perfect","modern russian loss of pluperfect","helen_m126","Kuznecov 1965,Ivanov 1982,Zaliznjak 2004,Andersen 2006"
"helen_m126","Russian","verb","verbs with perfective lexical aspect","During the 1400s-1500s, the future perfect construction was lost, and its function taken over by the future of imperfective verbs, the present of perfective verbs, or the preterite. This may have been precipitated by the reanalysis of the l-participle as a finite past form. In the 16th century, the construction survives occasionally in bookish usage, but with the auxiliary frozen in the 3sg form.","loss","(tense:future)","middle russian loss of person and number marking in past","modern russian loss of future perfect","helen_m124","Nikiforov 1952,Kuznecov 1965,Andersen 2006,Ivanov 1982"
"helen_m125","Russian","verb","verbs with imperfective lexical aspect","During the 1400s-1500s, the future perfect construction was lost, and its function taken over by the future of imperfective verbs, the present of perfective verbs, or the preterite. This may have been precipitated by the reanalysis of the l-participle as a finite past form. In the 16th century, the construction survives occasionally in bookish usage, but with the auxiliary frozen in the 3sg form.","replacement","(tense:future)","middle russian loss of person and number marking in past","modern russian loss of future perfect","helen_m124","Nikiforov 1952,Kuznecov 1965,Andersen 2006,Ivanov 1982"
"helen_m124","Russian","verb","None","Following the loss of the inflectional distinction between imperfective and perfective aspect, the present tense forms of the copula were no longer opposed to any past tense forms. In past constructions, they now served merely as markers of person and number. Gradually they were omitted in redundant contexts: 3rd person forms, which typically agreed with an explicit nominal subject, and in sentences containing an emphatic subject pronoun. From the 1200s onwards, the use of subject personal pronouns increased, and auxiliary 'be' in the past tense was correspondingly omitted more commonly. This change tended to affect plurals before singulars, and progress from third person > second person > first person. Eventually, the result was the total omission of the copula, so that all that remained of past constructions was a participle agreeing with the gender (in the singular) and number of the verb's subject, which was reanalysed as a finite form.","neutralisation","(tense:past)","late common slavic loss of imperfective","middle russian loss of person and number marking in past","helen_m122","Kuznecov 1965,Zaliznjak 2004,Andersen 2001,Andersen 2006"
"helen_m98","English","noun","n-stems","In Middle English, the ō-stems and n-stems, which had developed pervasive syncretism through sound changes, merged into a single class. the suffix -e was generalised in the singular, and -en in the plural.","replacement","(number:singular case:accusative)(case:genitive)(number:singular case:dative)","Expected ME weak nouns","ME en-plurals from n-stems","helen_m97","Lass 1992"
"helen_m99","English","pronoun","None","Already in Old English, the accusative forms of first and second person pronouns had become syncretic with dative forms. In Middle English this spread to the third person pronouns. In the masculine and feminine the dative forms survived in this new oblique function, while in the neuter the nominative-accusative form ousted the dative. This had the effect of making gender marking (which was increasingly assigned on semantic grounds) more systematic, at the expense of case marking.","replacement","(case:accusative gender:feminine)(number:singular gender:neuter case:dative)(case:accusative gender:masculine)(person:3 case:accusative number:plural)","OE 3rd person pronouns","ME 3rd person pronouns I","helen_m82","Lass 1992"
"helen_m210","Kitúba","verb","None","Kitúba has replaced most of the inflectional aspect distinctions of ethnic Kikóngo with periphrastic constructions involving the verbs kele ‘be’ and mene ‘finish’. Future tense is marked using a preverbal auxiliary ata.","loss","(tense:future)(aspect:durative)(aspect:habitual)(aspect:perfect)","Kikongo tense aspect","Kituba tense aspect","None","Mufwene 1997"
"helen_m90","English","noun","None","In early Middle English, prepositions that had taken either dative or genitive case in Old English started to take the dative suffix -e in the singular.","replacement","(number:singular case:genitive)","Early ME a-stems","ME nouns dative replaces genitive after prepositions","helen_m89","Lass 1992"
"helen_m91","English","nominal","None","In Old English, the genitive case was governed by some adjectives and prepositions, and could be the case of certain arguments of the verb (e.g. experiencers), as well as appearing adnominally in a variety of senses (possessive, partitive, and marking both patients and subjects/agents of nouns of action). In Middle English, the genitive was replaced by a construction using the preposition 'of' in all but  its possessive and subjective senses.","loss","(case:genitive)","Early ME a-stems","ME nouns loss of genitive","helen_m89","Lass 1992"
"helen_m92","English","nominal","None","In Old English, the dative case could be governed by nouns, adjectives, verbs and prepositions. In Middle English it was replaced in most of these uses by prepositional constructions, leaving the bare dative only as an option for indirect object marking. Since the dative had become indistinguishable from the nominative/accusative in most noun classes, this led to competition between unmarked and analytically marked indirect objects which was eventually resolved syntactically (as in Present-day English, where indirect objects are marked with 'to' only if they do not precede a direct object).","loss","(case:dative)","Early ME a-stems","ME nouns dative replaced by prepositional constructions","helen_m89","Lass 1992"
"helen_m93","English","nominal","None","In later Middle English, the suffix -e was deleted in certain metrical environments, so that the alternation between -e and a null suffix was increasingly phonologically rather than morphologically determined. By the end of the period, the variant -e is almost exclusively found at line ends in poetry.","replacement","(number:plural case:genitive)(case:dative number:singular)","Early ME a-stems","Late ME a-stems","helen_m89","Lass 1992"
"helen_m94","English","nominal","None","In late Middle English, the dative case, which had become indistinguishable from the nominative/accusative in most contexts, was lost. The genitive marker -es was reanalysed syntactically, becoming a phrase-level marker rather than a case suffix, as in Present-Day English (e.g. 'King Henry's cat', *'King's Henry's cat').","Mixed","(case:dative)(case:genitive)","Late ME a-stems","Late ME nouns Loss of genitive and dative","helen_m93","Lass 1992"
"helen_m95","English","noun","ō-stems","By Middle English, the merger of unstressed final vowels and of final m and n should have caused almost complete syncretism in the paradigms of ō-stem nouns.","neutralisation","(number:singular)(case:nominative)(case:accusative)(case:genitive)","Late OE long_o-stems","Expected ME long_o-stems","helen_m74","Lass 1992"
"helen_m96","English","noun","ō-stems","In Middle English, the ō-stems and n-stems, which had developed pervasive syncretism through sound changes, merged into a single class. the suffix -e was generalised in the singular, and -en in the plural.","replacement","(number:plural case:nominative)(number:plural case:accusative)(number:plural case:genitive)","Expected ME long_o-stems","ME en-plurals from long_o-stems","helen_m95","Lass 1992"
"helen_m97","English","noun","n-stems","By Middle English, the phonological merger of unstressed vowels in final syllables and of final m and n should have caused near-complete syncretism in the paradigms of n-stem nouns.","neutralisation","(case:accusative)(number:singular case:genitive)(case:dative)(number:plural case:nominative)","OE weak nouns","Expected ME weak nouns","helen_m76","Lass 1992"
"helen_m10","Arabic","noun","None","In many modern Arabic dialects, plural and dual have merged. For nouns referring to natural pairs the dual form has often been generalised, while the plural has been generalised elsewhere (compare idēn ‘(two or more) hands’, ʿasākir ‘(two or more) policemen’)","replacement","(number:dual)(number:plural)","Modern arabic dialects no case","Modern arabic dialects dual loss","helen_m9","Blanc 1970"
"helen_m11","Ge'ez","noun","None","Short -i and -u merged as schwa, and then were lost in word-final position, resulting in a binary case distinction between accusative and an unmarked non-accusative.","neutralisation","(number:singular case:nominative)(number:singular case:genitive)(gender:feminine case:nominative)(gender:feminine number:plural)","Proto-Semitic","Pre-Ge'ez","None","Hasselbach 2013,Lipiński 2001"
"helen_m12","Ge'ez","noun","None","The opposition between an accusative in -a and unmarked non-accusative was extended from the singular to the plural.","neutralisation","(number:plural)","Pre-Ge'ez","Ge'ez","helen_m11","Hasselbach 2013,Lipiński 2001"
"helen_m13","Greek","verb","None","All dual forms of verbs, nouns and adjectives were replaced by equivalent plurals during the Classical period.","replacement","(number:dual)","greek loss of dual verbs before","greek loss of dual verbs after","None","None"
"helen_m14","Greek","verb","None","The optative mood fell out of use in the post-Classical spoken language, first in its function as an optional synonym for the indicative or subjunctive in subordinate constructions with a past tense main clause, and later in its core function of expressing a wish.","loss","(mood:optative)","greek loss of optative before","greek loss of optative after","None","Horrocks 2010"
"helen_m15","Greek","verb","None","By the mid-2nd century BC, most of the suffixes of the present indicative had fallen together with those of the imperfective subjunctive, as the result of sound changes (the loss of distinctive vowel length and other vowel mergers)","Mixed","(number:singular voice:active person:2)(number:singular person:3 voice:active)(number:plural person:1)(person:1 voice:middle)(person:1 voice:passive)(number:plural person:3 voice:passive)(number:plural person:3 voice:middle)","Classical attic indicative subjunctive","Mid 2nd century BC indicative subjunctive","None","Horrocks 2010"
"helen_m16","Greek","verb","None","Following the phonological merger of most present indicative and imperfective subjunctive forms, the few remaining subjunctive forms that were distinct were replaced by indicative forms.","replacement","(number:plural person:2)(number:plural person:3 voice:active)(person:3 number:singular voice:middle)(person:3 voice:passive number:singular)","Mid 2nd century BC indicative subjunctive","post merger greek indicative subjunctive","helen_m15","Horrocks 2010"
"helen_m17","Greek","verb","None","The loss of distinctive vowel length and vowel raising led to the syncretism of most forms of the future indicative active and the perfective subjunctive active, and the rest became syncretic by morphological change, leading to the loss of the inflectional future.","Mixed","(voice:active number:singular person:2)(voice:active number:singular person:3)(voice:active aspect:perfective number:plural)","Classical attic future aorist subjunctive","Roman future aorist subjunctive","None","Horrocks 2010"
"helen_m18","Greek","verb","verbs with irregular stem alternations","Following the coalescence of the subjunctive and indicative active person/number suffixes by sound change, regular verbs lost the distinction between future indicative active and perfective subjunctive forms. Verbs which had distinct aorist and future stems at first retained the distinction, but then extended the syncretism, usually in favour of the past perfective stems.","replacement","(tense:future voice:active)","Hellenistic future aorist subjunctive","Roman future aorist subjunctive","None","Horrocks 2010,Sims-Williams 2016"
"helen_m19","Greek","verb","None","Greek inherited a two-way opposition between active and mediopassive voice from Proto-Indo-European, and innovated distinct passive forms only in the future and perfective. Middle-passive syncretism was then restored analogically to the future and perfective from the rest of the paradigm.","replacement","(voice:middle aspect:perfective)(perfect:nonperfect voice:middle tense:future)","ancient greek middle passive","modern greek middle passive","None","Horrocks 2010,Sims-Williams 2016"
"helen_m222","Dutch","nominal","None","In Middle Dutch, nominal inflection already had extensive syncretism of case, number and gender.   Starting in the Northern dialects, the distinction between nominative and accusative cases (which were already syncretic in nouns and feminine or plural articles and adjectives) were lost, and apart from a few relics, the genitive and dative cases were replaced by prepositional competitors (e.g. van ‘of’, aan ‘to’. The masculine/neuter genitive suffix -s became a phrasal clitic, as in Modern English. Because only the nominative forms tended to survive, and usually these lacked a distinction between masculine and feminine forms, most Dutch dialects (excluding those of Limburg and Brabant) have merged the two into a single ‘common’ gender. Only pronouns retain separate masculine and feminine forms, but the distinction between them has been reanalysed on semantic grounds.","Mixed","(number:singular gender:masculine case:accusative)(case:genitive)(case:dative)","Middle dutch def art","Modern dutch def art","helen_m71","None"
"helen_m164","Mainland Scandinavian","adjective","None","The three-gender system of the indefinite adjectives tended to be reduced to a binary system opposing neuter to masculine and feminine. In some dialects this was achieved by generalising the masculine form.","replacement","(definiteness:definite)(gender:feminine)(number:plural)","Early Modern Swedish and Norwegian adjectives I","Scandinavian adjectives generalisation of masculine","helen_m162","Mørck 2005"
"helen_m169","Greek","noun","masculine","In Northwest Cappadocian and the dialect of Mistí (Central Cappadocian), the nominative plural form has replaced the accusative plural in masculine nouns.","replacement","(number:plural case:accusative)","Cappadocian DOM","Northwest Cappadocian generalisation of nominative plural","helen_m168","Janse 2004"
"helen_m158","Mainland Scandinavian","pronoun","None","In the third person pronouns, dative forms replaced accusatives, creating a binary subject/object distinction in place of the earlier nominative-accusative-dative case distinction in all personal pronouns. In some Swedish and Norwegian dialects, however, third person pronouns have retained an accusative/dative distinction in the singular.","replacement","(person:3 case:accusative)","Mainland Scandinavian reduction to subject versus object case forms I","Mainland Scandinavian reduction to subject versus object case forms II","helen_m156","Mørck 2005"
"helen_m159","Mainland Scandinavian","pronoun","None","Genitive forms of the personal pronouns were reanalysed as possessive determiners.","loss","(case:genitive)","Mainland Scandinavian reduction to subject versus object case forms II","Mainland Scandinavian pronouns loss of genitive","helen_m158","Mørck 2005"
"helen_m156","Mainland Scandinavian","pronoun","None","In the first and second person singular, accusative forms replaced datives.","replacement","(case:dative number:singular person:1)(case:dative number:singular person:2)","Mainland Scandinavian dual pronouns lost","Mainland Scandinavian reduction to subject versus object case forms I","helen_m155","Mørck 2005"
"helen_m157","Mainland Scandinavian","reflexive pronoun","None","As in the first and second person pronouns, accusative forms also replaced datives in the reflexive pronoun.","replacement","(case:dative)","Mainland Scandinavian dual pronouns lost","Mainland Scandinavian reduction to subject versus object case forms I","helen_m155","Mørck 2005"
"helen_m154","Mainland Scandinavian","noun","None","During the development of the mainland Scandinavian languages the genitive singular suffix -s of the a-stem nouns tended to spread to all inflection classes and to plural and definite forms. This stage was reached in Swedish and Norwegian in around the 16th century. At this point, the suffix could be added to a noun phrase in addition to a noun, making it a syntactically distinct phrase marker: e.g. kongen av Danmarks land 'the land of the king of Denmark'.","loss","(case:genitive)","Swedish a-stems VI","Swedish a-stems VII","helen_m153","Mørck 2005"
"helen_m168","Greek","noun","masculine","Cappadocian Greek has developed differential object marking through sustained contact with Turkish. While Turkish DOM depends on specificity, Cappadocian DOM depends on definiteness: masculine singular direct objects only mark accusative case when they are definite, otherwise using the historical nominative marker. In addition, the nominative plural and genitive singular have merged through the loss of final unstressed -i and -u, and the resulting unsuffixed form has also spread to the genitive plural (a suffix -ju can also be found in the genitive singular).","Mixed","(number:singular case:accusative)(case:genitive)(number:plural case:nominative)","Pre-Cappadocian nouns","Cappadocian DOM","helen_m41","Janse 2004"
"helen_m152","Mainland Scandinavian","noun","neuter strong nouns","The historical accusative (now merged with the nominative) continued to replace the dative in Swedish and Norwegian, with the merger spreading to the indefinite singular of neuter strong nouns.","replacement","(case:dative number:singular definiteness:indefinite)","Swedish a-stems neuter III","Swedish neuter a-stems V","helen_m151","Mørck 2005"
"helen_m153","Mainland Scandinavian","noun","None","The merger of the dative and the historical accusative (now merged with the nominative) finally spread to plural and definite noun forms in Swedish and Norwegian (although the dative was retained in some dialects until the 20th century).","replacement","(case:dative definiteness:definite)(case:dative number:plural)","Swedish a-stems IV","Swedish a-stems VI","helen_m152","Mørck 2005"
"helen_m150","Mainland Scandinavian","noun","ō-stems","In Swedish and Norwegian, the loss of the dative case started in the indefinite singular of feminine ō-stems (where the dative marker -u already served as an accusative marker in some nouns). The dative form was replaced by the historical accusative, which had merged with the nominative.","replacement","(case:dative number:singular definiteness:indefinite)","ON feminine long_o-stems","Swedish feminine long_o-stems","helen_m145","Mørck 2005"
"helen_m151","Mainland Scandinavian","noun","masculine strong nouns","The historical accusative (now merged with the nominative) continued to replace the dative in Swedish and Norwegian, with the merger spreading to the indefinite singular of masculine strong nouns.","replacement","(case:dative number:singular definiteness:indefinite)","Swedish a-stems III","Swedish a-stems IV","helen_m150","Mørck 2005"
"helen_m212","Kitúba","nominal","None","Kitúba retains a simplified Bantu-type system of class marking on the noun (with incipient generalisation of the class 2 plural prefix ba-), but other elements of noun phrases no longer display number or gender agreement.","neutralisation","","Kituba noun classes I","Kituba noun classes II","None","Mufwene 1997"
"helen_m223","Afrikaans","nominal","None","In Afrikaans, gender loss went even further than in standard Dutch, with the distinction between common gender and neuter disappearing by the mid-18th century.","replacement","(number:singular gender:neuter)","Modern dutch def art","Afrikaans gender","helen_m222","Lass 1990"
"helen_m186","English","verb","None","By the earliest Old English, the Proto-Germanic dual had been replaced by the plural everywhere except first and second person pronouns, which now agreed with plural verbforms.","replacement","(number:dual person:1)(number:dual person:2)","PGmc loss of dual 1 and 2","OE loss of dual 1 and 2","helen_m185","Ringe 2006"
"helen_m215","Amharic","verb","None","In Amharic, the loss of agreement suffixes in the ‘simple imperfect’ (found in imperfective negative or subordinate verb forms) led to syncretism of the 2sg maculine and the 3sg feminine, which share the same prefixes and had been distinguished only by their suffixes.","neutralisation","(aspect:imperfective number:singular gender:masculine person:2)(aspect:imperfective number:singular gender:feminine person:3)","Amharic verbs  I","Amharic verbs  II","None","Bulakh 2014"
"helen_m65","Jawoyn","nominal","None","Jawoyn shows vegetable agreement with neuter head nouns.","replacement","(gender:neuter)","Gunwinyguan languages conservative","Jawoyn innovative I","None","Harvey 1997"
"helen_m64","Bininj Gun-wok","nominal","None","In the dialects of Gundjeihmi, Kunrayek and Kunwinjku, vegetable agreement is found with neuter head nouns. In Gundjeihmi, neuter agreement is no longer found, while in the other two dialects neuter agreement is in variation with vegetable agreement.","replacement","(gender:neuter)","Bininj Gun-wok conservative","Gun-djeihmi dialect conservative","None","Evans 1997,Evans 2007a"
"helen_m67","Warray","nominal","None","Warray shows vegetable agreement with neuter head nouns.","replacement","(gender:neuter)","Gunwinyguan languages conservative","Warray innovative I","None","Harvey 1997"
"helen_m66","Jawoyn","nominal","None","Jawoyn shows masculine agreement with head nouns of any gender.","replacement","(gender:feminine)(gender:neuter)(gender:vegetable)","Jawoyn innovative I","Jawoyn innovative II","helen_m65","Harvey 1997"
"helen_m61","Jingulu","pronoun","None","In demonstratives and bound pronouns representing clausal subjects, singular forms may appear with dual or plural referents.","replacement","(number:dual)(number:plural)","Jingulu number sing pl","Jingulu number generalisation of sg","helen_m60","Meakins & Pensalfini 2016"
"helen_m60","Jingulu","pronoun","None","In demonstratives and bound pronouns representing clausal subjects, plural forms may appear with dual referents.","replacement","(number:dual)","Jingulu number conservative","Jingulu number sing pl","None","Meakins & Pensalfini 2016"
"helen_m63","Bininj Gun-wok","nominal","None","Bininj Gun-wok distinguishes four genders using prefixes attached to head nouns, with agreement across the noun phrase. In the Kune dialect, the masculine form of adjectives, demonstratives and numerals have been generalised, causing the loss of gender agreement.","replacement","(gender:feminine)(gender:neuter)(gender:vegetable)","Bininj Gun-wok conservative","Kune dialect innovative","None","Evans 1997,Evans 2007a"
"helen_m62","Dyirbal","noun","None","Dyirbal marks gender in a free form also encoding case and evidentiality. In younger speakers of Dyirbal, markers of the residue class have generalised to vegetable nouns, collapsing the distinction between residue and vegetable nouns.","replacement","(gender:edible)","Dyirbal conservative","Dyirbal innovative","None","Schmidt 1985"
"helen_m155","Mainland Scandinavian","pronoun","None","In the Mainland Scandinavian languages, dual forms of pronouns were replaced by plurals.","replacement","(number:dual person:1)(number:dual person:2)","ON personal pronouns","Mainland Scandinavian dual pronouns lost","helen_m136","Mørck 2005"
"helen_m69","Proto-Germanic","nominal","None","Except in first and second person pronouns, and the corresponding categories of verb agreement, the Proto-Indo-European dual was replaced in Proto-Germanic by the plural.","replacement","(number:dual)","PIE nominal categories","PIE nominal categories loss of dual","None","Ringe 2006"
"helen_m68","Warray","nominal","None","Warray shows masculine or vegetable agreement with head nouns of any gender.","replacement","","Warray innovative I","Warray innovative II","helen_m67","Harvey 1997"
"helen_m196","English","verb","None","Standard English has lost number distinctions in the second person of pronouns and the corresponding verb forms, by generalising plural forms, via a period in which the number distinction was reanalysed as a T/V distinction. In verb paradigms, this has caused the complete loss of number, person and mood marking save for the third person singular present indicative -s.","replacement","(mood:indicative number:singular person:2)","Early Modern English verbs","Present day English verbs","helen_m195","Lass 1992"
"matthew_m4","Egyptian","verb","stative","Spread of 3sg masculine form.","replacement","(person:3rd number:dual)(person:3rd number:plural)","egyptian1","egyptian2","None","Sethe 1899"
"matthew_m5","Egyptian","verb","stative","Reduction of suffixes (phonological?).","neutralisation","(person:2nd)(number:singular gender:feminine)","None","None","matthew_m4","Sethe 1899"
"matthew_m6","Egyptian","verb","stative","Confusion of suffixes in Late Egyptian.","replacement","(number:singular)(person:1st)","egyptian3","egyptian4","matthew_m5","None"
"matthew_m7","Coptic","verb","stative","Generalization of 3sg masculine inflection to all forms, except for 16 verbs that take the original 3sg feminine form.","replacement","(number:plural)(person:1st)","egyptian4","coptic","matthew_m6","None"
"helen_m149","Mainland Scandinavian","noun","feminine weak nouns","Following the merger of the nominative and accusative plural in Swedish, the distinction was lost in its final stronghold, the indefinite singular of weak nouns. Some dialects generalised the accusative forms, while others generalised the nominative. Case loss in Norwegian also followed a similar pattern to the Swedish developments.","replacement","(case:nominative number:singular definiteness:indefinite)","Swedish feminine weak nouns","Swedish feminine weak nouns accusative replaces nominative","helen_m145","Mørck 2005"
"helen_m148","Mainland Scandinavian","noun","feminine weak nouns","Following the merger of the nominative and accusative plural in Swedish, the distinction was lost in its final stronghold, the indefinite singular of weak nouns. Some dialects generalised the accusative forms, while others generalised the nominative. Case loss in Norwegian also followed a similar pattern to the Swedish developments.","replacement","(number:singular definiteness:indefinite case:accusative)","Swedish feminine weak nouns","Swedish feminine weak nouns nominative replaces accusative","helen_m145","Mørck 2005"
"matthew_m2","Malayalam","verb","None","Further dropping of agreement suffixes between 14th and 15th centuries, introduction and spread of participial form in the future.","Mixed","(number:plural person:2nd)(number:plural gender:neuter)(gender:neuter tense:past)(number:plural person:3rd tense:past)(tense:future gender:neuter)(number:plural person:3rd tense:future)","None","None","matthew_m1","None"
"matthew_m3","Malayalam","verb","None","Loss of all agreement between 15th c. and Modern Malayalam.","replacement","(person:1st)(number:singular person:2nd)(number:singular tense:past gender:masculine)(number:singular tense:past gender:feminine)(number:singular tense:future gender:masculine)(number:singular tense:future gender:feminine)","15thc","modern_malayalam","matthew_m2","Ramaswami Ayyar 1936,Andronov 1996"
"helen_m145","Mainland Scandinavian","noun","a-stems","In Swedish in the 15th century, nominative/accusative plural syncretism spread to the definite forms of masculine a-stems, the last noun class that still had distinct nominative and accusative plural forms (case loss in Norwegian followed a similar trajectory to Swedish).","replacement","(definiteness:definite case:nominative number:plural)","Old Swedish a-stems II","Swedish a-stems III","helen_m144","Mørck 2005"
"helen_m144","Mainland Scandinavian","noun","feminine strong nouns","Following similar mergers in Swedish  masculine a-stems, the accusative replaced the nominative in the definite strong singular of feminine strong nouns (ō-stems and i-stems). The loss of final -r and subsequent analogical remodelling also created singular-plural syncretism in the indefinite genitive and the definite nominative-accusative. Case loss in Norwegian followed a similar path as in Swedish.","replacement","(definiteness:definite case:nominative)(definiteness:definite number:plural case:accusative)(number:singular case:genitive definiteness:indefinite)","ON feminine i-stems","OSw feminine i-stems","helen_m143","Mørck 2005"
"helen_m147","Mainland Scandinavian","noun","masculine weak nouns","Following the merger of the nominative and accusative plural in Swedish, the distinction was lost in its final stronghold, the indefinite singular of weak nouns. Some dialects generalised the accusative forms, while others generalised the nominative. Case loss in Norwegian also followed a similar pattern to the Swedish developments.","replacement","(case:nominative number:singular definiteness:indefinite)","Swedish masculine weak nouns","Swedish masculine weak nouns accusative replaces nominative","helen_m145","Mørck 2005"
"helen_m146","Mainland Scandinavian","noun","masculine weak nouns","Following the merger of the nominative and accusative plural in Swedish, the distinction was lost in its final stronghold, the indefinite singular of weak nouns. Some dialects generalised the accusative forms, while others generalised the nominative. Case loss in Norwegian also followed a similar pattern to the Swedish developments.","replacement","(number:singular definiteness:indefinite case:accusative)","Swedish masculine weak nouns","Swedish masculine weak nouns nominative replaces accusative","helen_m145","Mørck 2005"
"helen_m141","Mainland Scandinavian","noun","None","During the development of the mainland Scandinavian languages the genitive singular suffix -s of the a-stem nouns tended to spread to all inflection classes and to plural and definite forms. This stage was reached earliest in Danish, where it was more or less complete in the spoken language by 1350. At this point, the suffix could be added to a noun phrase in addition to a noun, making it a syntactically distinct phrase marker: e.g. kongen av Danmarks land 'the land of the king of Denmark'.","loss","(case:genitive)","Danish nouns loss of dative","Danish nouns loss of genitive","helen_m140","Mørck 2005"
"helen_m140","Mainland Scandinavian","noun","None","By 1350, dative forms had been replaced by the historical accusative (now merged with the nominative) in Danish. Parallel changes occurred later in Swedish and Norwegian.","replacement","(case:dative)","Old Danish nouns loss of accusative","Danish nouns loss of dative","helen_m139","Mørck 2005"
"helen_m143","Mainland Scandinavian","noun","a-stems","Following the merger of nominative and accusative in the indefinite singular of strong masculine nouns in Old Swedish, the accusative replaced the nominative in the definite singular. (Case loss in Norwegian followed a similar trajectory to the Swedish developments).","replacement","(definiteness:definite case:nominative number:singular)","Old Swedish a-stems","Old Swedish a-stems II","helen_m142","Mørck 2005"
"helen_m142","Mainland Scandinavian","noun","a-stems","The merger of the nominative and accusative cases in Old Swedish began in the indefinite forms of masculine a-stems, where the loss of final -r caused nominative-accusative syncretism in the plural (this was dialectally limited at first), and the unmarked accusative singular indefinite replaced the nominative. Case reduction in Norwegian largely followed the same trajectory as Swedish). ","replacement","(case:nominative definiteness:indefinite)","ON a-stems","Old Swedish a-stems","helen_m136","Mørck 2005"
"helen_m197","Fongbe","nominal","None","Proto-Niger-Congo is reconstructed with a gender system similar to that of the Bantu languages, although with fewer gender categories (the precise number is not agreed on). Kwa-type languages such as Fongbe have lost gender and number agreement throughout the noun phrase, and have also lost number marking on nouns (which was conditioned by gender).","loss","","Proto-Niger-Congo nominal","Kwa nominal","None","Good 2012"
"helen_m208","Swahili","nominal","","In Swahili, the Bantu gender system has been restructured in terms of animacy. Nominals and verbs agreeing with animate nouns have agreement markers of class 1/2, which is the gender associated with humans.","replacement","","Swahili adjectives","Swahili adjectives animate","None","Good 2012"
"helen_m202","Dagaare","demonstrative pronoun","None","In Dagaare numerals and demonstratives show a reduced system of gender agreement. Plural forms agreeing with nouns denoting humans have the prefix ba- (perhaps via resegmentation of the plural suffix of gender 1 nouns, which are typically human), otherwise the plural form has a prefix a-. Number agreement in demonstratives is optional, while in numerals it is obligatory.","Mixed","","Dagaare gender system","Dagaare numerals and demonstratives","None","Good 2012,Dakubu 2005"
"helen_m203","Mundabli","noun","gender c (class 5/7)","In the Bantoid language spoken in the the Cameroonian village of Mundabli, number marking has been lost in nouns of some genders, while number and gender are still consistently marked on other elements of the noun phrase.","neutralisation","","Mundabli gender c I","Mundabli gender c II","None","Good 2012"
"helen_m200","Dagaare","adjective","Deverbal adjectives and other adjectives with gender 6 forms","In Dagaare, gender agreement has been lost in adjectives by generalising a single set of singular/plural sufffixes for each adjective. Nearly all adjectives have the suffixes of genders with plurals in -rI (genders 2, 6 and 7).","replacement","","Dagaare gender system","Dagaare adjective gender 6","None","Good 2012,Dakubu 2005"
"helen_m201","Dagaare","numeral","None","In Dagaare numerals and demonstratives show a reduced system of gender agreement. Plural forms agreeing with nouns denoting humans have the prefix ba- (perhaps via resegmentation of the plural suffix of gender 1 nouns, which are typically human), otherwise the plural form has a prefix a-. Number agreement in demonstratives is optional, while in numerals it is obligatory.","Mixed","","Dagaare gender system","Dagaare numerals and demonstratives","None","Good 2012,Dakubu 2005"
"helen_m206","Dagara","noun","None","In Dagara, number marking has been lost in nouns when they are followed by an adjective (which agrees with the noun’s number).","neutralisation","","Dagara I","Dagara II","None","Good 2012"
"helen_m207","Mungbam","nominal","None","In Mungbam, the plural marker of a single gender is being generalised as an all-purpose plural marker in nouns, and sometimes also in agreeing nominals. This is not usually found with nouns of gender a (class 1/2), which typically denote humans.","replacement","(number:plural gender:b)(number:plural gender:c)(number:plural gender:e)(number:plural gender:f)(number:plural gender:g)","Mungbam I","Mungbam II","None","Good 2012"
"helen_m204","Mundabli","noun","gender d (class 7/8)","In the Bantoid language spoken in the the Cameroonian village of Mundabli, number marking has been lost in nouns of some genders, while number and gender are still consistently marked on other elements of the noun phrase.","neutralisation","","Mundabli gender d I","Mundabli gender d II","None","Good 2012"
"helen_m205","Aghem","noun","None","In Aghem, number marking has been lost in certain syntactic contexts where the noun’s gender and marker are marked by another syntactic element, e.g. when followed by possessive pronouns, in demonstrative and associative constructions, and with an agreeing verbal subject marker.","replacement","(number:plural)","Aghem I","Aghem II","None","Good 2012"
"helen_m76","English","noun","n-stems","Between Proto-Germanic and the earliest Old English, pervasive syncretism developed in the paradigms of n-stem ('weak') nouns. As in all noun classes, the dative and instrumental cases merged. The nominative plural replaced the accusative plural, as elsewhere, and this form merged with the accusative singular by phonological change. The accusative singular form also spread to the other non-nominative cases of the singular.","replacement","(case:instrumental)(case:accusative)(number:singular case:genitive)(number:singular case:dative)","PGmc weak nouns","OE weak nouns","helen_m69","Ringe 2006"
"helen_m77","English","noun","kinship r-stems","In the development from Proto-Germanic to Old English, almost all noun types developed nominative-accusative plural syncretism. Normally, the nominative form replaced the accusative, except in a small minority of r-stem nouns denoting family relations, where the accusative plural replaced the nominative plural instead.","replacement","(case:instrumental)(case:vocative)(number:plural case:nominative)","PGmc kinship r-stems","OE kinship r-stems","helen_m69","Ringe 2006"
"helen_m74","English","noun","ō-stems","During Old English, nominative-accusative plural syncretism spread to the ō-stem class (which had been the only noun class to retain a distinction between nominative and accusative plural from Proto-Germanic).","replacement","(number:plural case:accusative)","OE long_o-stems","Late OE long_o-stems","helen_m73","Hogg 1992"
"helen_m75","English","noun","i-stems","The Old English i-stem nouns were the only ones in which nominative-accusative plural syncretism developed by phonological change, which may have been part of the motivation for the same change in other noun classes.","Mixed","(case:vocative)(number:plural case:nominative)(number:plural case:accusative)(case:instrumental)","PGmc i-stems","OE i-stems","helen_m69","Ringe 2006"
"helen_m72","English","noun","a-stems","In the earliest Old English, all noun classes except the ō-stems had developed nominative-accusative syncretism in the plural. The vocative, which was already identical to the nominative in the plural and in the singular of many classes, was replaced by the nominative everywhere. In the a-stem nouns, nominative-accusative syncretism also developed in the singular by phonological change. In all OE noun classes, the instrumental case was replaced by the dative, first in the plural (as in all West Germanic languages), then in the singular. Separate instrumental forms survived only in adjective and pronoun paradigms.","Mixed","(number:singular case:vocative)(number:singular case:nominative)(case:accusative)(case:instrumental)","PGmc a-stems","OE a-stems","helen_m70","Ringe 2006"
"helen_m73","English","noun","ō-stems","In Old English ō-stems, the primary feminine noun class, sound change caused syncretism between the accusative and genitive singular, and between the nominative and genitive plural. The accusative/genitive singular suffix was also extended to the dative singular, which by regular sound change would otherwise have merged with the nominative and genitive plural. While other noun classes developed nominative-accusative syncretism in the plural, the ō-stems initially retained separate forms. In all OE noun classes, the instrumental case was replaced by the dative, first in the plural (as in all West Germanic languages), then in the singular; only in the plural of the ō-stems, this merger was expected as the result of phonological change. Separate instrumental forms survived only in adjective and pronoun paradigms.","Mixed","(case:dative)(case:instrumental)(case:accusative)(case:genitive)(number:plural case:nominative)","PGmc long_o-stems","OE long_o-stems","helen_m71","Ringe 2006"
"helen_m70","Proto-Germanic","noun","a-stems","During the development from Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Germanic,the dative case merged with the locative and ablative. In the plural, the form that survived was the PIE dative-ablative. In the Proto-Germanic a-stems, the most productive masculine noun type, the locative singular form continued in the expanded dative function.","replacement","(number:singular case:dative)(number:singular case:ablative)(case:locative number:plural)","PIE nominal categories loss of dual","PGmc a-stems","helen_m69","Ringe 2006"
"helen_m71","Proto-Germanic","noun","ō-stems","During the development from Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Germanic,the dative case merged with the locative and ablative. In the plural, the form that survived was the PIE dative-ablative. In the Proto-Germanic ō-stems, the most productive feminine noun type, the dative singular form continued in the expanded dative function.","replacement","(case:locative)(number:singular case:ablative)","PIE nominal categories loss of dual","PGmc long_o-stems","helen_m69","Ringe 2006"
"helen_m216","Wolane","verb","None","In a number of Transversal South Ethio-Semitic languages, the prefixal subject markers of the 1sg and 3sg masculine/plural have fallen together phonologically. This has combined with the loss of agreement suffixes to create 1sg-3sg masculine syncretism in the ‘simple imperfect’ (the form which occurs in subordinate constructions, opposed to the ‘compound imperfect’ which is the result of grammaticalisation and fusion of an auxiliary verb *hallawa). In the past imperfective construction using the simple imperfect and auxiliary *nabara, the two are disambiguated in some languages (e.g. Silt’e) by the form of the auxiliary, but in Wolane the auxiliary has an invariant form när.","neutralisation","(aspect:imperfective number:singular person:1)(aspect:imperfective number:singular gender:masculine person:3)","Wolane I","Wolane II","None","Bulakh 2014"
"helen_m78","English","adjective","None","Like the n-stem ('weak') nouns, with which they shared their inflection, definite (weak) adjectives in Old English developed pervasive syncretism as the result of phonological mergers and morphological and syntactic changes.","Mixed","(case:vocative)(definiteness:definite number:singular case:dative)(definiteness:definite number:singular case:genitive)(definiteness:definite case:accusative)(definiteness:definite number:plural case:nominative)","None","OE weak nouns","None","Ringe 2006"
"helen_m79","English","pronoun","None","In the earliest Old English texts, the plural has replaced the dual everywhere but the 1st and 2nd person pronouns and the corresponding categories of verb agreement. Dative forms replaced instrumentals, as in noun paradigms.","replacement","(number:dual person:3)(case:instrumental)","PGmc pronouns","OE pronouns 1st 2nd 3rd person","None","Ringe 2006"
"helen_m170","Greek","noun","masculine animate","In North Cappadocian, while animate masculine nouns have generalised the historically nominative form across the plural, inanimate nouns have instead replaced the nominative plural with the accusative plural form.","replacement","(number:plural case:accusative)","Cappadocian DOM","Northwest Cappadocian generalisation of nominative plural","helen_m168","Janse 2004"
"helen_m171","Greek","noun","masculine inanimate","In North Cappadocian, while animate masculine nouns have generalised the historically nominative form across the plural, inanimate nouns have instead replaced the nominative plural with the accusative plural form. ","replacement","(case:nominative number:plural)","Cappadocian DOM","North Cappadocian generalisation of accusative plural","helen_m168","Janse 2004"
"helen_m172","Greek","adjective","None","In Cappadocian Greek, the neuter nominative-accusative form has been generalised across all gender and case values for all agreeing adjectives, pronouns and determiners, without any parallel change to the form of nouns. This was preceded by a shift from syntactic to semantic agreement which has occurred to various extents in all but one of the Asia Minor Greek dialects, and may have also been encouraged by sustained contact with Turkish, which lacks gender or case agreement.","replacement","","Common Asia Minor Greek agreeing nominals","Cappadocian neuter agreement","helen_m41","Karatsareas 2014"
"helen_m173","Greek","pronoun","None","In Cappadocian Greek, the neuter nominative-accusative form has been generalised across all gender and case values for all agreeing adjectives, pronouns and determiners, without any parallel change to the form of nouns. This was preceded by a shift from syntactic to semantic agreement which has occurred to various extents in all but one of the Asia Minor Greek dialects, and may have also been encouraged by sustained contact with Turkish, which lacks gender or case agreement.","replacement","","Common Asia Minor Greek agreeing nominals","Cappadocian neuter agreement","helen_m41","Karatsareas 2014"
"helen_m174","Greek","determiner","None","In Cappadocian Greek, the neuter nominative-accusative form has been generalised across all gender and case values for all agreeing adjectives, pronouns and determiners, without any parallel change to the form of nouns. This was preceded by a shift from syntactic to semantic agreement which has occurred to various extents in all but one of the Asia Minor Greek dialects, and may have also been encouraged by sustained contact with Turkish, which lacks gender or case agreement.","replacement","","Common Asia Minor Greek agreeing nominals","Cappadocian neuter agreement","helen_m41","Karatsareas 2014"
"helen_m175","Greek","adjective","None","In the Pharasiot dialect of Asia Minor Greek, the neuter nominative-accusative form has been  generalised across all gender and case values for adjectives and postnominal articles, without any parallel change to the form of nouns (historically masculine and feminine forms are found only in the article when it occurs before the noun, and occasionally with feminine personal pronouns). This was preceded by a shift from syntactic to semantic agreement which has occurred to various extents in all but one of the Asia Minor Greek dialects, and may have also been encouraged by sustained contact with Turkish, which lacks gender or case agreement.","replacement","","Common Asia Minor Greek agreeing nominals","Cappadocian neuter agreement","helen_m41","Karatsareas 2014"
"helen_m176","Greek","article","None","In the Pharasiot dialect of Asia Minor Greek, the neuter nominative-accusative form has been  generalised across all gender and case values for adjectives and postnominal articles, without any parallel change to the form of nouns (historically masculine and feminine forms are found only in the article when it occurs before the noun, and occasionally with feminine personal pronouns). This was preceded by a shift from syntactic to semantic agreement which has occurred to various extents in all but one of the Asia Minor Greek dialects, and may have also been encouraged by sustained contact with Turkish, which lacks gender or case agreement.","replacement","","Common Asia Minor Greek agreeing nominals","Cappadocian neuter agreement","helen_m41","Karatsareas 2014"
"helen_m177","Greek","pronoun","None","In the Pharasiot dialect of Asia Minor Greek, agreeing pronouns usually have historically neuter forms regardless of the gender of the controlling noun, but historically feminine forms are occasionally found.","replacement","(gender:masculine)","Pontic and Rumeic I","Pharasiot feminine pronouns","helen_m41","Karatsareas 2014"
"helen_m178","Greek","nominal","None","In the Pontic and Rumeic dialects of Asia Minor Greek, historically neuter forms usually agree with nouns denoting non-human nouns, while human-denoting nouns usually preserve tripartite gender agreement.","replacement","(gender:masculine)(gender:feminine)","Pontic and Rumeic I","Pontic and Rumeic IIb","helen_m41","Karatsareas 2014"
"helen_m179","Greek","nominal","None","In the Pontic dialect of Asia minor Greek, female animals pattern with inanimates in triggering historically neuter agreement forms, while male animals agree with historically masculine forms, like male humans. ","replacement","(gender:feminine)","Pontic and Rumeic I","Pontic IIc","helen_m41","Karatsareas 2014"
